STUDY Diego Carrión Nataly Maya Paola Sánchez May 2025 Situation of Workers in the African Palm Sector in Ecuador Ecuador Office

Credits Publisher: © Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Ecuador FES-ILDIS Av. República 500 y Martín Carrión, Edif. Pucará 4 to piso, Of. 404 Quito-Ecuador- Telf.:(593) 2 2562-103 Public address: 17-03-367 www.ecuador.fes.de info.ecuador@fes.de Editorial Coordination: Anahi Macaroff Authors: Diego Carrión Nataly Maya Paola Sánchez Design and Layout: g creativedesign Cover Illustration: María Belén Guerrero Printing: Digital ISBN 978-9978-94-267-3 First Edition, May 2025 Quito, Ecuador The contents of this publication may be quoted and reproduced for non-commercial purposes and with proper credit and bibliographical reference. Commercial use and reprinting of all materials edited and published by the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) are prohibited without prior written permission from FES. The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent those of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Other Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung publications can be found here: ↗ https://.ecuador.fes.de/mediateca

Diego Carrión, Nataly Maya, Paola Sánchez May 2025 Situation of Workers in the African Palm Sector in Ecuador

Table of Contents Introduction.......................................................  5 1. Ecuadorian Labour Market Situation, 2018-2023.......................  5 2. The African Palm Industry in Ecuador................................  6 Background ....................................................  6 Influence of the African Palm on the Ecuadorian economy ..............  6 Exports ........................................................  7 Challenges in production and exports with downward trend ............  7 3. Working conditions of African Palm cultivation workers.................  9 Characterization of Workers African Palm cultivation sector ............  9 Working conditions of African Palm Workers.......................... 10 Remuneration................................................... 12 Occupational risks and workplace health............................. 12 Unionisation and workers’ organisation.............................. 12 4. Note..........................................................  13 5. Conclusions..................................................... 14 Bibliography....................................................... 15

Introduction This document analyzes the situation of workers in the African palm sector in Ecuador between 2018 and 2023. In general terms, the working conditions in the palm sector must be understood within the broader context of high labor precariousness in the country, particularly in the agricultural sector. Therefore, this study begins with a brief description of the Ecuadorian labor market between 2018 and 2023. Subsequently, it addresses the specificities of the African palm industry in Ecuador before analyzing the situation of workers in the sector. 1. Ecuadorian Labour Market Situation, 2018-2023 In Ecuador, more than 70% of the economically active population(EAP) works under precarious conditions. This is due to various factors, such as receiving a monthly income below the minimum wage, working fewer than 40 hours per week, lacking social security affiliation, or experiencing a combination of these conditions. 1 A significant trend in the labor market between 2018 and 2021 was the decline of seven percentage points in adequate employment, consequence of the pandemic´s, effect management through the Organic Law of Humanitarian Support(LOAH, by its Spanish acronym). Specifically, in rural areas, more than two and a half million people are engaged in agricultural and animal husbandry activities, representing 30% of the EAP. During this period, only 4% of the rural EAP had some form of employment contract. Among those with contracts, just over half had stable contracts, while 47% of rural workers held precarious, yet legal, contracts. The dominant contract types in rural areas include the Special Emergency Contract(12%), the Productive Sector Contract(9%), the Seasonal Contract(8%), and the Part-Time Permanent Contract(7%). These four contract types account for 36% of rural workers registered in the Ministry of Labor. 1 		 According to the Labour Precariousness Index(IPL, by its Spanish initials) produced by the Observatory of Labour and Critical Thinking of the Central University of Ecuador(OTyPC-UCE, by its Spanish acronym), based on figures from the National Survey of Employment, Underemployment and Unemployment(ENEMDU, by its Spanish acronym), collected by the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses(INEC). Situation of Workers in the African Palm Sector in Ecuador 5

2. The African Palm Industry in Ecuador Background The African palm industry in Ecuador began developing in the 1960s, influenced by the Green Revolution and in the context of agrarian reform and nationalist industrialization. The industry has promoted vertical integration, placing small producers in subordinate positions while contributing to the consolidation of large national economic groups. At the same time, the expansion of the African palm industry has generated socio-environmental resistance due to deforestation, labor exploitation, and the displacement of rural communities, especially Afro-descendant populations. Influence of the African Palm on the Ecuadorian economy Ecuador has 171 active companies involved in African palm cultivation, crude oil refining, and processed oil refining. The registered capital of these companies ranges from USD 100 to USD 89 million(Superintendence of Companies, Securities, and Insurance, 2024). Sectors consuming African palm in Ecuador and exports (Total use), 2022 10.0% 90.0% 80.0% 70.0% 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0% 92.1% 7.8% Cultivation of oilseeds Production of oils and fats of vegetable and animal origin Source: Supply Utilisation Matrix, ECB, 2022. Prepared by the authors. 0.1% Exports Figure 1 In 2023, the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses(INEC, by its Spanish acronym), through the Continuous Agricultural Surface and Production Survey(ESPA, by its Spanish acronym), reported that the total harvested area of African palm 6 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e.V. was 137,678 hectares, producing 2.0 million tons, a 2.6% decrease compared to 2022. At the territorial level, the Esmeraldas province has the largest harvested area with 35.5% of the national total.

Exports In 2023, crude palm oil(CPO) exports totaled 141,389 metric tons. The main exporting companies were Ales Palma(41%), Palesema(22%), and Organicsupply(8%), which together represented 71% of total CPO exports. These companies belong to the Danec, La Fabril, and Importex economic groups, respectively(ANCUPA, 2024). Ecuador primarily mainly exports crude palm oil to regional markets(69%), Colombia being the main destination(64%), followed by the United States(13%). Exports to European countries, including the Netherlands, Spain,and the United Kingdom, account for 16%, of exports, Spain being the primary European market(6%). Challenges in production and a downward trend experienced in exports The African palm industry is currently experiencing a sustained decline in the processing of its products, as well as in its exports. The harvested area of African palm decreased by 2.6% compared to the area harvested in 2022(INEC, 2024, p. 10). Likewise, palm production decreased by 10.7% compared to 2022, as shown in Figure 2(INEC, 2024). Figure 2 13% 6% 5% 64% 3% 2% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% Colombia USA Spain Portugal Panama Brazil Source: Foreign Trade Statistics, ECB, 2022. Prepared by the authors. Netherlands Mexico Puerto Rico Canada Chile Others Figure 3 3,500,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 500,000 0 3,275,990 2,785,760 2,446,369 2,275,950 2,418,855 2,296,402 2,049,700 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2024 Source: ESPAC-Ministry of Agriculture, 2017-2023. Prepared by the authors. Situation of Workers in the African Palm Sector in Ecuador 7

The main reason for the decline is the bud rot plague affecting the industry, its treatmen involves replacing crops with hybrid species resistant to the pathogen that causes the disease. This treatment requires a high investment and a long time to restore productivity, causing many medium and small producers to abandon the activity, affecting the ownership structure in the sector and favoring the monopolistic concentration of the sector by the largest companies. Another threat to palm production in Ecuador comes from the agro-industrial sector. In particular, companies that produce oil for domestic consumption often prefer to import palm oil or substitutes. This practice undermines the national demand for locally produced African palm oil, negatively impacting the domestic industry. According to Ecuadorian Central Bank data, African palm imports increased by 86% between 2018 and 2022, while soybean oil imports grew by 126% in the same period. In 2022, due to the war in Ukraine, the sector benefited from high international palm oil prices. However, in November 2023, La Fabril and Danec, two of the large agro-industrial producers, imported palm oil and soybean oil as substitutes that they mix with palm oil for the production of cooking oil for home consumption. In doing so, they created overproduction in the local market and a consequent drop in prices. While imported oil is paid 1,050 dollars per ton on the international market, on the local market it is paid between 780 and 800 dollars per ton(Actores productivos, 2023). Despite a reduction in the total harvested area of African palm nationwide, since 2016 there has been a migration of production zones towards the Amazon region, primarily in the provinces of Sucumbíos and Orellana. This increase has not been sustain, but rather variable; however, there are investigations –mainly journalistic– that suggest a deforestation problem in native forests as a result of the expansion of palm cultivation in the area due to the lack of control over this expansion. In 2012, the Ministry of Environment issued Ministerial Agreement No. 15, which simplifies environmental permits for the planting of African palm in areas less than or equal to 50 hectares(Ministry of Environment of Ecuador, 2012, p. 8). This agreement eliminates licenses and establishes environmental cards, which reduces control over the economic activity. According to the 2017 Palm Census conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock(MAG, by its Spanish acronym), in the province of Sucumbíos, out of 926 plots with a total of 21,784 hectares of cultivated land, only 24 had State-issued permits, representing just 2.59% (MAG, 2017). According to ESPAC data, it is estimated that between the provinces of Sucumbíos and Orellana there are 36,749 hectares in 2022; however, the MapBiomas platform 2 identified 121,049 hectares of palm plantations in both provinces for the same year, i.e. more than three times the amount officially registered(Alarcón, 2024). 2 Collaborative initiative between non-governmental organisations and universities, specialized in land use, remote sensing, GIS, and programming to generate historical series of land cover and land use in the Amazon. MapBiomas Ecuador 8 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e.V.

3. Working conditions of African Palm cultivation workers Profile of African palm cultivation workers Based on data from the ENEMDU(2023), it is possible to describe palm and oilseed workers in a referential way, showing that 89% are men and only 11% are women. This differentiation is justified by the high demand for physical strength in these tasks. However, women participate in specific areas such as pollination, where they account for up to 60% of workers in certain companies. Moreover, testimonies indicate that this partition reflects labor inequalities in terms of remuneration, stability, and access to specialized positions, due to the use of“special emerging contracts”, especially in the areas of pollination, which concentrates female labor. On the other hand, men’s work is concentrated in the areas of harvesting and maintenance, the latter requiring technical knowledge. In this context, it is clear that structural gender gaps persist in the agro-industrial sector. Another characteristic of palm and oilseed workers is that they are mainly young people, with 61% under 40 years of age, and one-third between 20 and 29 years of age. It is noteworthy, however, that a fifth(almost 20%) are elderly people over 60 years old. Percentage of palm and oilseed workers by age range, 2023 Figure 4 Under 20 years old Between 20 and 29 years old Between 30 and 39 years old Between 40 and 49 years old Between 50 and 59 years old More than 60 years old 6% 11% 10% 18% 31% 24% Source: ENEMDU annualized 2023. Prepared bu the authors. Situation of Workers in the African Palm Sector in Ecuador 9

30% of palm and oilseed workers identify themselves as belonging to an ethnic group, specifically as Afro-descendants. Finally, a significant portion of palm and oilseed workers are internal migrants, with 60% not born in the city or rural parish where they work, while 4% come from another country. Only 36% of the workers were born in the agricultural exploitation area. The majority of workers are employed in the provinces of Esmeraldas and Los Ríos. Working conditions of African palm workers The decline in production and exports has significantly impacted employment, reducing the number of workers in the sector by 51%, which amounts to more than half of the workforce. Agricultural workers in African palm and other oilseed crops Figure 5 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 27,126 22,538 2018 2019 Number of workers per year 17,299 17,845 13,174 2020 2021 2022 2023 Trend line, estimated number of workers 2020 The historical ENEMDU series, in place since 2007, was disrupted in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Methodological changes and the reduced sample size that year render the data incomparable with those of previous and subsequent years. As a result, the break in the historical series is represented with a solid line, while the 2020 figure is estimated using the trend line, shown as a dashed line. Source: ESPAC-Ministry of Agriculture, 2018-2023. Prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture. This context allows us to understand why in the period 2018-2023 we observe(fFigure 6) a decrease in precarious work by income in African palm production, from 46% to 20% of all workers in the sector(orange line). At the same time, there has been a significant increase in adequate employment(represented by the dark blue line), rising from 11% of the total workforce in 2018 to 30% in 2023 among workers in palm and other oilseed crops. 10 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e.V.

Figure 6 50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 46% 35% 17% 13% 11% 22% 19% 14% 3% 2% 2018 2018 2020 Stable job Precarious work due to inadequate hours Precarious work for vir 2 per. med. móv.(precarious work due to low income) 2 per. med. móv.(precarious work not registered) 41% 22% 17% 10% 2% 28% 25% 22% 17% 2% 30% 24% 20% 15% 5% 2021 2022 2023 Precarious work due to low income Precarious work not registered 2 per. med. móv.(stable job) 2 per. med. móv.(precarious work due to inadequate hours) 2 per. med. móv.(precarious work for vir) Source: ESPAC-Ministry of Agriculture, 2018-2023. Prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture. The increase in the percentage of adequate employment in the sector may be due to the fact that formal workers are the ones who manage to retain their jobs during times of crisis. Conversely, the decline in precarious employment can be explained by the fact that it is precisely the most vulnerable workers who are most affected by the rapid reduction in the total number of jobs in the sector. Figure 7 50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 12% 36% 48% 23% 20% 21% 39% 30% 24% 25% 10% 1% 0% 0% 1% 1% 4% 5% Suitable Under- Other non-full Unpaid employment employment employment employment Unskilled Unemployment employment Agriculture National Palm and oilseeds Source: Annualised ENEMDU 2018, 2019, 2021, 2022, 2023. Prepared by the authors. Situation of Workers in the African Palm Sector in Ecuador 11

Remuneration According to testimonies, the payment for workers who perform piece-rate activities can range between USD 15 and USD 23 per hectare(Worker A, San Lorenzo Canton, 2024). Regarding workers with permanent contracts, their remuneration undoubtedly varies depending on the areas in which they carry out their activities. However, the key point is that interviewees believe these workers are in better conditions when there is a union or a workers’ council: The benefits they receive for having a workers’ council include an additional bonus, a December bonus, but we do not have those clauses. Moreover, you can see the difference: imagine that a technician with a council earns almost$1,000[...] in companies with a union,$750[...] and where there is nothing, one can earn$600. (Worker B, San Lorenzo Canton, 2024) Occupational risks and workplace health As part of the processes to increase the productivity of palm crops, an artificial pollination process is currently carried out, which consists of“applying naphthaleneacetic acid(NAA) to the female inflorescences in order to stimulate fruit formation” (García& Ibagué, 2020, p. 15). The human chronic health of this component include: acute(oral) toxicity, severe eye damage or eye irritation. It is also hazardous to the aquatic environment(Roth, 2024). Among the main impacts mentioned by the workers, those related to the visual and respiratory areas stand out. The testimonies indicate that they lack protective equipment, which is only provided when there is a scheduled inspection. This situation is compounded by other risks such as snake bites, muscle wasting, worn knees, fractures, cuts, among others. Testimonies indicate that this type of work-related accidents are rarely reported to the competent authorities, nor are managed in accordance with the national regulations that require mandatory reporting. Only a few companies comply with this requirement, which evidence a lack of control and supervision of compliance with occupational safety regulations. Finally, it is important to insist on the existence of differences in occupational safety and working conditions between companies with a workers’ council and those without one. Unionization and workers’ organization In general, Ecuador has a unionization rate of less than 3% of the EAP. The palm oil sector is no exception in this regard, and testimonies reveal anti-union mechanisms -the creation of pro-company workers’ associationsand even persecution by the companies to prevent union organization. Thus, of the eight large companies present in San Lorenzo: Energy& Palma, Sipra, Ales Palma, Tropipalma, Palmera de los Andes, Palesema, Palpailón, only two have workers’ councils -Ales Palma and Palmera de los Andes- and one -Energy& Palma- has a trade union. Workers within a council recognize that they have achieved a number of benefits as a result of their struggle. These benefits range from guaranteeing all their labor rights, such as social security, holidays, legally mandated annual bonus and profit sharing schemes, to other benefits such as seniority bonuses, food vouchers, medical care and transport service (Worker A, Cantón San Lorenzo, 2024). These also include differences in the provision of safety equipment. [...] we have the joint committee, where we manage these benefits. And the company does provide those tools: gloves, masks, suits for fumigation, because they also fumigate. We keep an eye whether they comply with that. (Worker A, Cantón San Lorenzo, 2024) 12 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e.V.

4. Note The 2018-2023 time period at the national level is built from the annualized databases of the ENEMDU (National Survey of Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment) for that period. In other words, they are based on the official statistics produced by the National Institute of Statistics and Census(INEC, by its Spanish initials), although variables and indicators constructed from this information may be different due to the conceptual theoretical approach applied in their construction. This is the case of the differences between the“activity condition” variable constructed by INEC and the results of the Labour Precarity Index(IPL) proposed by the Observatory of Labour and Critical Thinking of the Central University of Ecuador. The Labour Precarity Index seeks to measure the quality of employment by combining three indicators: wages, working hours and formal registration of workers. Worker registration is measured by affiliation to the Ecuadorian Social Security Institute(IESS, by its Spanish acronym) or other social security systems(ISSFA, ISPOL, Seguro Campesino, etc.). The following categories emerge from the combination of three indicators: stable work, if workers have a salary equal to or higher than the unified basic wage(SBU, by its Spanish initials), legal working hours and social security. Precarious by income, if they earn less than the basic wage. Precarious by working hours, if they work more or less than 40 hours per week.Precarious by non-registration, if they lack social security. Precarious by income, working hours and registration(yjr), if they earn less than the basic wage, have inadequate working hours and lack social security. The African palm case study was conducted using a mixed methodological approach, combining quantitative analysis of official employment data with testimonies of palm workers in the canton of San Lorenzo. Situation of Workers in the African Palm Sector in Ecuador 13

5. C . onclusions The African palm industry in Ecuador began to develop in the 1960s, influenced by the Green Revolution and in the context of agrarian reform and nationalist industrialization. The State, together with INIAP and MAG, has played a crucial role in the consolidation of this sector. The industry has fostered vertical integration, where small producers are in subordinate positions, while at the same time contributing to the consolidation of large national economic groups. However, this expansion has provoked socio-environmental resistance due to the expansion of the agricultural border, labor exploitation and the uprooting of Afro-descendant peasant communities. Likewise, the development of palm cultivation in the Amazon is seen as a field that requires observation, registration, reliable data collection and -mainly- control, as there is a dissonance between the scope and dimension of the activity in official records versus the data produced by non-governmental organizations and indigenous communities. African palm production has fallen significantly in Ecuador even before the pandemic, due to the bud rot pest and falling prices, resulting in a sharp decline in harvested area, production and export volumes, as well as in the quantity and quality of employment in the sector. In palm and oilseed cultivation workers are mainly young, adult and elderly men, internal and foreign migrants and racialized populations. Meanwhile, female labour is under-reported due to the predominance of emerging contracts that do not guarantee job stability, specializing in areas such as pollination. The disparity in working conditions between companies with and without union representation underlines the crucial importance of worker organization. Those with recognized unions or workers’ councils have been able to negotiate better wages and benefits. However, the formation and management of these organizations faces significant obstacles, including active resistance from companies and some complicity from Government bodies. 14 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e.V.

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Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería.(2017). Resultados Censo Palmero 2017. Tableau Public. https://public.tableau. com/app/profile/jorge.melgarejo/viz/ ResultadosCensoPalmero2017_15857858890250/ CensoPalmero Ministerio de Ambiente del Ecuador.(2012). Acuerdo Ministerial No. 15. http://esacc.corteconstitucional. gob.ec/storage/api/v1/10_DWL_FL/eyJjYXJwZXRhIjoicm 8iLCJ1dWlkIjoiNzMyMDMxYzMtY2 YyNi00ZDE0LTk3MDUtYWJmZjU3OTQ1MzJjLnBkZiJ9 Moreno, M.(2019). Racismo ambiental: Muerte lenta y despojo de territorio ancestral afroecuatoriano en Esmeraldas. Íconos: revista de ciencias sociales, 64 /23(2), 89-109. Potter, L.(2011). La industria de aceite de palma en Ecuador: ¿un buen negocio para los pequeños agricultores? Eutopía: Revista de Desarrollo Económico Territorial, 2. http://repositorio.flacsoandes.edu.ec/ handle/10469/3977 Quevedo, T.(2013). Agroindustria y concentración de la propiedad de la tierra: Elementos para su definición y caracterización en el Ecuador. Instituto de Estudios Ecuatorianos. https://biblioteca-repositorio.clacso.edu.ar/ handle/CLACSO/6059 Ramírez, R.(2012). Diagnóstico de las y los trabajadores de la agroindustria de la palma en el Magdalena Medio y Meta. Federación Nacional Sindical Unitaria Agropecuaria. Roth.(2024). Ficha de datos de seguridad. file:///C:/Users/ lolap/Downloads/SDB-4343-ES-ES.pdf Soley, R.(2016). Género y territorio: Análisis de las desigualdades en los sistemas de género por la producción de Palma Africana en Quinindé, Esmeraldas, Ecuador. [Master‘s Thesis, Quito: FLACSO Sede Ecuador]. http:// repositorio.flacsoandes.edu.ec/handle/10469/9482 Superintendencia de Compañías, Valores y Seguros.(2024). Directorio de Compañías[Dataset]. https://appscvsmovil. supercias.gob.ec/PortalInformacion/sector_societario.html 16 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e.V.

About the Authors Diego Carrión holds a degree in Economics(UCE), a Master‘s degree in Development(ULT), and a PhD in Sociology from the National University of La Plata, Argentina. He is a professor at the Faculty of Economic Sciences at the Central University of Ecuador(UCE), director of the Labor and Critical Thinking Observatory, and a researcher at the Institute of Economic Research at the same institution. He has researched topics related to rural economy, economic development, labor market and labor relations. Nataly Maya is an educommunicator(UCE) with postgraduate degrees in History(FLACSO) and Cultural Studies(UASB). She is a consultant and researcher with experience in labor studies, history of the labor movement, education, and curatorship. She is an external researcher at the Observatory of Labor and Critical Thinking at UCE. Paola Sánchez holds a degree in Sociology from the Central University of Ecuador, specializing in research methods, and is a candidate for a Master‘s degree in Latin American Studies. She has researched topics related to labor, sociopolitical conflict, and education, serving as a researcher at the Observatory of Labor and Critical Thinking and as an educator in informal processes for rural communities. Situation of Workers in the African Palm Sector in Ecuador 17

Situation of workers in the African Palm Sector in Ecuador → This document analyzes the situation of workers in the African palm sector in Ecuador between 2018 and 2023. → In general terms, the situation of palm workers must be considered within the framework of the highly precarious labor market that exists in the country, especially in the agricultural sector. → Therefore, this study begins with a brief description of the labor market situation between 2018 and 2023. The specificities of the African palm industry in Ecuador are addressed in a second section, followed by an analysis of the situation of workers in the sector. Other Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung publications can be found here: ↗ https://.ecuador.fes.de/mediateca