WELCOME EXIT LOCAL EATERY Open!! BANK OF T Political Economy of Urban Public Transport in Africa and the Role of the World Bank ASTRID R.N. HAAS

Published by Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Trade Union Competence Centre for Sub-Saharan Africa. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Trade Union Competence Centre for Sub-Saharan Africa 34 Bompas Road, Dunkeld West, Johannesburg, 2196, South Africa Tel:+27-10 446 8612 Email: tucc@fes.de © Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung 2022 ISBN: 978-0-6397-4475-9 Thank you very much to the International Transport Workers’ Federation(ITF) contribution to this paper. The commercial use of all media published by the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) is not permitted without written consent. The publication may be quoted, and extracts used, provided that the source is fully acknowledged. The views expressed in the publication are not necessarily those of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Overview: Transportation Providers in African Cities 1 2. The Elements of a Just City 5 3. Paratransit Systems in African Cities 10 4. The Bus Rapid Transit System 16 5. World Bank Interventions in Urban Transportation in Africa 21 6. Policy Recommendations: Towards Socially Just Public Transportation 28 7. References 39 8. Annex 43 BOXES BOX 1: Examples of Paratransit Services in African Cities BOX 2: People’s Public Transport Policy Demands BOX 3: The FES Just City Work Programme(related to public transport) BOX 4: ITDP BRT Scorecard BOX 5: Examples of World Bank Financed Urban Public Transportation Projects in Africa BOX 6: World Bank’s Main Lessons from the DART Implementation BOX 7: Transport Worker’s Recommendations for the Dakar Labour Impact Assessment BOX 8: Cape Town: Improving Paratransit Operations BOX 9: Case Study Nakuru, Kenya FIGURES FIGURE 1: Share of Paratransit of Total Road-based Passenger Transport in Selected African Cities FIGURE 2: Average Daily Net Income of Paratransit Workers in Kampala FIGURE 3: Reduction of Trips Due To COVID-19 Lockdowns in Selected African Cities FIGURE 4: Distributional Impact of Selected BRT Investments ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADB ATGWU BRT ESIA GHG IFI ILO IMF ITDP ITF Asian Development Bank Amalgamated Transport and General Workers’ Union Bus Rapid Transport Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Greenhouse Gas International Finance Institution International Labour Organization International Monetary Fund Institution for Transportation and Development Policy International Transport Workers’ Federation KCCA KPIs LMP NUMSA PDO PPP RIT SSATP TRT TUCC USD Kampala Capital City Authority Key Performance Indicators Labour Management Plans National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa Project Development Objectives Public Private Partnerships Rede Integrade de Transporte Africa Transport Policy Program A Re Yeng Tshwane Rapid Transport Trade Union Competence Centre US Dollars

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TRANSPORT SERVICE PROVIDERS AND USERS IN AFRICAN CITIES The primary way cities foster connections between people, their residences, and their places of work is through managed density or by creating connectivity through the provision of transportation. Yet, as is the case in many African cities, the opposite is happening as cities are sprawling, but without the commensurate investments by governments in public transportation networks and services. In many cases this is underpinned, by historical economic policy decisions that have resulted in the collapse of public transport systems where these previously existed. To fill this void, as well as to provide opportunity for employment and income to large numbers of people who have moved to these cities, several paratransit service providers, in a variety of forms, have emerged(see Box 1 for different examples from African cities). BOX 1: EXAMPLES OF PARATRANSIT SERVICES IN AFRICAN CITIES Taxis(Uganda)/ matatus(Kenya)/ dala dalas (Tanzania)/ mini-bus taxis(South Africa)/ danfos (Nigeria)/ tro tro(Ghana)/ gbaka(Côte D’Ivoire): Mini-buses that operate as collective taxis(14–25-seater) Sept-place(Senegal): Peugeot station wagons usually used for longer inter-city trips(7 seats) Tuk-tuks(Kenya, Tanzania): 3-wheeled motorised vehicles(3 seats) Boda-bodas(Uganda, Kenya): Motorcycle taxis(1–2 seats) Woro woro(Côte D’Ivoire): Artisanal private taxis These paratransit providers, which operate relatively informally, privately, and are largely self-regulated, are sometimes the primary and only transportation providers for some cities. Yet, although they are providing a muchneeded service, in general their modes for operating are in many ways sub-standard, particularly from the perspective of those who are running the system, who often must endure extremely poor working conditions. KEY BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES OF THE PARATRANSIT SYSTEM Perhaps the main benefit of this paratransit system is that it is enabling movement within cities. Furthermore, as noted, providers within the system are also a major source of employment, particularly for youth, in the absence of other formal employment opportunities. However, there are also significant challenges with this system. Firstly, as noted, the working conditions for the many employed both directly and indirectly by this sector are precarious and sub-standard across multiple facets, as detailed in the proceedings of the International Labour Organization’s(ILO) Technical meeting on the future of decent and sustainable work in urban transport services (ILO, 2021_a). In addition, the current system is unable to fully or efficiently meet the rapidly growing demand, as it is usually comprised of lower-capacity vehicles. The proliferation of many smaller vehicles, combined with their extemporaneous operating procedures, contribute to growing congestion. In terms of sustainability, many of the vehicles do not meet emissions standards, and thus contribute significantly to air pollution and greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 2 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

“The proliferation of many smaller vehicles, combined with their extemporaneous operating procedures, contribute to growing congestion.” From a transport user’s perspective, there are also challenges with the quality of service provided, for example, with respect to safety, accessibility, and overall efficiency. Many of these challenges are difficult to overcome without ensuring more support from governments, which in many cases, is currently negligible. PLANS AND INVESMENTS IN TRANSPORT SERVICES There are a growing number of plans and investments aimed at introducing higher-capacity transport technologies into African cities. One of the main proponents working in this space is the International Finance Institution(IFI), the World Bank. According to data from their project database on their website, since 2010, the World Bank has financed 89 urban transportation projects across Africa(see Annex 1 for full list), at a total project value of approximately 14.8 billion USD(World Bank, 2022). This list does not include technical assistance work or the several other projects currently in the preparation phase, which would only extend it further. Although the World Bank is one of the major investors in this sector, there are also several challenges that have emerged with the public transport projects they have financed, particularly with regards to operations, routing, and affordability. Furthermore, in many cities there has been strong reluctance and even more vociferous pushback against these projects, particularly from the paratransit service providers, specifically around how the projects have been conceived, planned, and implemented. There is less controversy surrounding the fact that some form of higher-capacity mass public transportation system is required, so that African cities can unlock their potential and promote just outcomes. In fact, the International Transport Workers’ Federation(ITF) highlights that expanding public transportation is a winwin solution on all fronts: it could improve access to services for communities, create millions of new decent jobs, and lower carbon emissions(ITF, 2022_a). However, the more contentious factors are around how the transition should take place, what the appropriate technologies are, and what role the paratransit sector can and should play as a continued part of a city’s overall transportation system. From a worker’s perspective these concerns relate to how many of their jobs will be displaced versus those created, what are the quality of the jobs that will be created, and whether they will be able to access these jobs. Similar concerns exist from a user’s perspective with respect to whether the transportation that is being introduced will meet the affordability and accessibility needs of all the different stakeholders in the city, particularly the most vulnerable. In 2020, the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) launched its Just City work programme, a joint project of several offices in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Just City framework, which underpins this programme, outlines the elements of what a well-functioning city should look like for all the citizens who live there. This framework underpins all the work the FES country offices undertake within cities. In addition, this framework and its accompanying principles, are further expanded to outline the role public transportation should play in a city. This draws from the ITF’s vision for a just transition, namely workerled, democratic, publicly-led, gender equal, and a clean transition for all transportation in cities(ITF, 2021_a). FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 3 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Chapter 2 offers a more in-depth discussion of the Just City framework, followed by a summary in Chapter 3, of the predominant forms of transportation currently found in African cities, and how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected public transportation and particularly the workers in this sector. Chapter 4 discusses the reintroduction of the most popular mass transportation system, the Bus Rapid Transit(BRT) and asks, which groups have access to it? “The Just City framework, which underpins this programme, outlines the elements of what a well-functioning city should look like for all the citizens who live there.” The focus shifts slightly in Chapter 5 to providing a broad outline of the financing and operational approach to public transportation investments pursued by the World Bank. The work of the World Bank and the Just City framework are then brought together in Chapter 6, to provide a series of policy recommendations on what could be done to better operationalise the World Bank’s investments in public transportation in the future, so as to ensure a focus on decent work and labour outcomes as the central components of a meaningful just transition to socially-equitable, productive, and sustainable urbanisation. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 4 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

2 THE ELEMENTS OF A JUST CITY WELCOME EXIT

WHAT IS THE“JUST CITY” CONCEPT? The Just City concept seeks to unpack and provide a framework in which urbanisation can occur, wherein there are just outcomes for all those living in the city. Although this concept was only adopted relatively recently by FES as a work programme, the elements of the Just City framework are not new. They build on the work by French sociologist and psychologist, Henri Lefebvre (1968), who highlighted that the use value of the city is more important than its market value. However, for this to be the case, components around urban social justice, equal distribution of opportunities for social mobility, enhanced access to social space, and family friendliness, need to be firmly embedded within the fabric of cities. Ensuring this requires democratic accountability in which all urban groups are fully recognised and included in these decisions by the city authorities. This particularly concerns decision-making around public goods. The current status quo across most African countries is the emergence of unjust cities(Maihack, 2020). This includes the proliferation of informal settlements, unequal land distribution and insecure tenure, precarious and informal labour markets that do not provide decent work, as well as unequal opportunities to access and benefit from the cities, amongst other factors. From a workers’ perspective, it relates to a lack of quality employment resulting in the need to pursue a precarious working existence to survive, rather than thrive in the city. This is particularly related to the“invisible urbanites”, namely those living and operating in informality and who remain some of the most vulnerable citizens and workers. Furthermore, as urbanisation is happening rapidly, many of the new infrastructure projects are being designed and implemented in ways that are exacerbating inequalities. Yet as Lefebvre(1968) highlighted, to achieve cities that can meet the needs of all, the right to the city needs to be expanded especially to the most vulnerable, invisible populations. “The current status quo across most African countries is the emergence of unjust cities.” Taking these general principles outlined by Lefebvre and others, the FES teams have expanded them to outline how they can be used to improve the equality of the distribution of political, economic, spatial, and financial resources in the city, outlined by the following pillars of a Just City and people-centred urbanisation (Omenya, 2020): • Dignity: The right of an individual or group to bevalued, respected, and treated ethically. • Equity and diversity: The city and its benefits are shared equitably amongst all persons living there. • Rights and responsibilities: The rights of all citizens are observed, yet at the same time, citizens also take responsibility in further developing their city. • Democracy: Decisions are made collectively based on an informed majority, which is crucial to ensuring functionality of the city for all the people living in it. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 6 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION AND THE JUST CITY The pillars and principles of the Just City concept can be applied to specific elements within the city, including to public transportation. Simultaneously, efficient and effective public transportation systems are also critical in achieving the overall aims of a Just City. As highlighted by ITF(2021_a) urban public transportation is not just the infrastructure, but rather it is comprised more broadly of the workers who operate it and the communities who depend on it. As such, the most successful public transport systems around the world not only manage to seamlessly connect people affordably, but at the same time provide decent work for their workers, and aim to ensure equity and fairness in terms of their access and routing, amongst other elements. In addition, transitioning to better functioning public transportation also has significant benefits with regard to the environment. All these aspects, beyond just the direct benefits to the user, are termed“positive externalities”, which is why it is often argued that transport displays the elements of a public good – where the social benefit outweighs any private benefit, and therefore should be provided in a manner that does not exclude anyone. Most public transport systems around the world do not fully fit this definition, as they have some form of fares and therefore are not fully non-exclusionary. BOX 2: PEOPLE’S PUBLIC TRANSPORT POLICY DEMANDS 1. Public transport services must be publicly-owned and operated. 2. Improve and expand integrated public transport and public transport jobs. 3. Guarantee democratic accountability in the planning, development, and future of public transport. 4. Prioritise investment and democratic accountability in public transport. 5. Promote public finance models. 6. Consider fare-free public transport. 7. Integrate decent work as a central objective of sustainable transport. 8. Connect quality jobs for quality services. 9. Regulate employment in informal public transport. 10. Involve informal workers in the formalisation of public transport. 11. Strengthen women’s employment and promote decent work in public transport. 12. End violence against women transport workers. 13. Introduce technological change in a way that advances gender equality. 14. Involve women workers in public transport decision-making. 15. Public ownership of digital infrastructure for the common good. 16. Consult and negotiate about technological change. 17. Control of benchmarking, monitoring, and surveillance technology. 18. Control the use of algorithms and data banks. 19. Regulate Mobility as a Service(MaaS). 20. Regulate on-demand platforms as public transport operator. 21. Facilitate job mobility and provide training for workers. 22. Use and share data for the common good. 23. Reduce working hours as productivity rises. 24. Regulate trials of remote control and driverless technology. 25. Guarantee a‘just transition’ for transport workers. 26. Adopt a‘whole economy’ approach to reduce transport emissions. 27. Support the electrification of public transport. 28. Work for energy and transport democracy. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 7 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

However, to ensure equitable access, these fares are • Sustainable: The system should e n s u r e usually highly subsidised by the government to ensure intergenerational equity for people and ensure that the overall societal benefits can be realised. environmental sustainability. Thus, providing a well-functioning transport system as a public good and service, is not profitable. For example, fares on public metro systems in Paris, Chicago, Madrid, or Boston, only recover less than 45% of the operating costs(Agarwal, 2018). The rest is subsidised by the government. To ensure equity and fairness in public transportation systems, ITF(2022_b) has developed 28 People’s Public Transport Policy Demands which are highlighted in Box 2. Drawing on these, Kenya’s Socially Just Public Transport Working Group, includes the following elements as pillars of a socially just public transportation system (Kamau and Manga, 2020): • Available: The system needs to connect the majority of citizens to where they want to get to and not unnecessarily delay their time in doing so. Achieving this will require a much more bottom-up conceptualisation, design, and planning, with the inclusion of representative alliances who can voice their needs and thus how their city should be shaped. This is critical given that different parts of a city’s society will experience the city and its transportation system in unique ways. This also includes how they experience the challenges. For example, compared with men, women often face a specific challenge when urban planning creates large separations between childcare and other non-work facilities, such as markets. Women are also less likely to own cars and are therefore more reliant on public transportation for their wider mobility needs (UNECE, 2008). Yet to date, women and their specific needs have been grossly underrepresented in transport planning(UNWomen, 2021). Ensuring that these kinds of unique needs are considered will enable many more people to contribute to the urban economy productively and will enable workers to reach their workplace more easily, to earn a living. • Accessible and affordable: It needs to be safe, Although there is no defined minimum standard when it secure, and affordable especially for low-income comes to socially just public transport, the primary aim, as earners and vulnerable populations. outlined by both the ITF and the principles of the Socially Just Working Group, is to ensure that it serves and services • Inclusive: The system should be collectively planned the citizens in a city. As such, it needs to fulfil various locally and designed by all stakeholders, ensuring that it specific roles, such that what is concretely required will can provide inclusive employment opportunities, differ according to the city itself. This requires an open and from a user’s perspective, does not leave anyone reconsideration of so-called“best practices”, which behind. often result in a biased focus on technology and costly investments, rather than on trying to fully understand the • Human rights and equity: Access and use should be city and its political economy. The latter is the approach non-discriminatory, providing alternatives and routes that the FES country offices are taking with respect to their for all users, as well as promoting decent work for work under the Just City framework, as outlined in Box 3. public transport workers. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 8 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

BOX 3: THE FES JUST CITY WORK PROGRAMME(RELATED TO PUBLIC TRANSPORT) Over the past years, many of the FES offices have been working closely with partners, including the ITF, on areas around promoting the Just City, particularly in the public transport space. In an effort to bring the different approaches encompassed by this work together and to provide overall learnings across offices, the Just Cities Work Programme was launched in 2020, with several country offices contributing to it. The Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda offices as well as the Trade Union Competence Centre(TUCC) are working on the topic of socially just public transport, albeit each taking a slightly different, locally sensitive approach. Some offices have adopted an alliance building approach, bringing together members in the transportation sector, together with those who work on it, for example from academia and civil society, to drive towards embedding the Just City principles in the transportation sector. Other country offices are pursuing avenues to ensure that a more democratic, participatory, and bottom-up process is adopted within the planning, policy development, and implementation process. There are several offices that are partnering directly with the local paratransit operators to support their organisation and, where more structured arrangements exist, working with unions to help shape and communicate the demands of workers and informal economies. WELCOME FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 9 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

3 PARATRANSIT SYSTEMS IN AFRICAN CITIES EXIT LOCAL EATERY Open!! FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 10 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

CRITICAL SERVICES PROVIDED BY PARATRANSIT SYSTEM In many African cities, paratransit does not only provide the predominant form of transport, in some cases it is the only form of transportation in the city, as detailed in Figure 1(Behrens et al., 2016). In addition to the critical service the paratransit sector provides, in terms of passenger transport, it also generates many employment opportunities, both directly and indirectly. For example, a study done in Kampala (Spooner et al., 2020), identifies that the taxis have direct crew member opportunities, including drivers, relief drivers, conductors, and relief conductors. Further to this, there are the workers who have employment around the so-called stages(boarding platforms or stations). These roles may include loaders, guides, touts, food vendors, mobile money agents, or more general hawkers. Many of the workers in these jobs who indirectly benefit from the paratransit sector, are women. The structure of the paratransit sector in many African cities, although diverse and highly context specific, generally comprises a variety of low-capacity, largely privately-owned vehicles that operate mostly informally and outside government regulation, with their own complex self-regulatory, and often sub-optimal, processes. Examples of the different forms of paratransit are highlighted in Box 1 on page 5. Paratransit Share of Road-based Passenger Transport (Data from 1998–2013) Figure 1: Share of Paratransit of Total Road-based Passenger Transport in Selected African Cities Source: Behrens et al.(2016) FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 11 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

The operations of the paratransit sector are generally demand-responsive, with flexible schedules, based on when their vehicles are full, but at the same time do have some type of fixed routing structure(Behrens et al., 2016). In general, some of the characteristics of informal paratransit include the following elements, although, as noted, not all are applicable to all paratransit systems around the continent(Kumar et al., 2021): • Largely provided when and how operators choose • Tend to move once they are full, often without formal schedules, designated stops or routes • Operated without a government subsidy or any other government support, but at the same time are paying some type of tax or fee to the government • Usually employ drivers and other workers who work on a commission basis, without formal contracts • Operate under an exploitative and unpredictable target system, 1 which determines how much workers are paid • Mostly self-regulate the state of their vehicles and operating conditions, but also have some form of organisational structure, ranging from loose to fully unionised Importantly, the paratransit sector involves many stakeholders, including politicians, policy makers, diverse vehicle owners, license holders, industry associations, workers and their organisations or associations, as well as transport users, amongst others. This results in a complex, very localised political economy, which often contributes to the unjust outcomes in this sector. WHY A JUST APPROACH IS REQUIRED The main reason that a more just approach to public transport is required is that this predominant form of transportation, whilst providing a service, is not doing so in a sub-optimal manner. From a worker’s perspective, the separated structure between the ownership and operation of these paratransit systems, as well as the fact that most operate informally, can lead to a very precarious working existence with respect to job security and extremely low wages. Although in some cities, such as Kigali, the paratransit sector has more successfully been able to organise, in others, like Kampala, it remains a highly fragmented sector, significantly increasing competition and lowering the income any one operator can earn. Furthermore, daily earnings can fluctuate significantly, also based on factors outside any one operator’s control. Figure 2 from Spooner et al. (2020) highlights the average daily wages in Kampala’s paratransit sector. Job Taxi driver Taxi conductor Taxi caller Taxi loader Boda driver Daily Net Income 4.29 USD – 21.43 USD 3.43 USD – 11.43 USD 1.43 USD – 2.29 USD 1.43 USD – 2.29 USD 0 USD – 5.71 USD Figure 2: Average Daily Net Income of Paratransit Workers in Kampala Source: Spooner et al.(2020) 2 1 This system requires workers to pay, amongst other costs, daily rental fees to the owners of vehicles, expenses, such as fuel, operations and maintenance, cleaning, etc., from the income they earn operating the vehicle. The usually very meagre balance is then what they take home as their daily wage. 2 Exchange Rate: 1 USD= 3,500 UGX FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 12 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

From a user’s perspective, whilst the paratransit system is, as noted, providing a service in terms of connecting the city, it is often not optimal in terms of quality and quantity. The vehicles themselves are usually unsafe and overcrowded. Furthermore, movement can be very slow due to their tendency to wait for a vehicle to completely fill before moving to save on fuel costs, coupled with rising congestion levels in many cities. In addition, as noted, the carrying capacity for any one paratransit vehicle is usually quite low, even if they only move once they are full, and therefore, particularly as the population of a city grows and taxis are trying to service more demand, the number of vehicles operating needs to also increase. Without commensurate increases in road space, this results in further congestion and other related challenges, such as GHG emissions, since many of the vehicles do not conform to emission standards. “From a user’s perspective, whilst the paratransit system is, as noted, providing a service in terms of connecting the city, it is often not optimal in terms of quality and quantity.” From a more general planning perspective, although the paratransit sector is currently the main provider of public transport for many cities, the sector and its input is largely excluded from land-use as well as from public transport planning for a city. This is partly due to the absence of a conducive political economy structure, such that there is a great deal of stigma and negative views associated with the sector’s operations. This includes the perceived unruliness of providers, or from the perspective of some governments, the inability of providers to match, in terms of technology, what is perceived to be the features of a modern city. As such, as governments continue to update their public transport plans to take into account popular new mass public transport technology, often the paratransit sector continues to be ignored or altogether excluded. IMPACTS OF COVID-19 ON PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SECTOR Already prior to the pandemic, workers in the paratransit sector faced extreme levels of insecurity in their jobs. For example, only an estimated 6% of workers in Dakar’s informal transport system were working with a contract(Sakho, 2021). As such, during the various lockdowns that were implemented because of the COVID-19 pandemic, where many African governments took decisions to either fully or partially lockdown their transportation systems, it had direct and significant impacts on these workers’ livelihoods. In 16 African cities surveyed in April 2020, 3 had fully stopped transport, 10 had partial lockdown measures in place, and 3 had no measures at all(World Bank, 2020). Examples of the types of responses ranged from Nairobi, where matatus were only allowed to operate at 60% capacity, to Dar es Salaam, where physical barriers were erected between the drivers and passengers. In cities like Kampala, to stop all movement, strict restrictions were put in place for a certain time. Furthermore, even when these measures were lifted, other measures were kept in place with respect to physical and social distancing, meaning that transport vehicles were unable to operate at full capacity. Some of the many impacts can be summarised as follows: • Demand: In April 2020, the number of public transport trips across African cities had fallen by an average of 40%(see Figure 3). FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 13 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

• Supply: There was an initial reduction in the supply of transport due to the various lockdown measures. However, once these had been lifted, some forms of paratransit, like boda-bodas experienced an increase in supply, as the economic shock had left many without other forms of employment. economic shock to Africa overall, there was not much fiscal space for governments to support a safety net or recovery efforts in the sector. • Fare prices: In most cases, public transport was unable to operate at full capacity and fare prices had to be hiked to compensate for the loss in passengers. For example, in Johannesburg, fare prices increased between 10%–25%. • Workers’ incomes: Across West Africa, transport workers’ earnings fell by an estimated 81% as a result of the lockdowns and social distancing measures (Sakho, 2021). Overall, many informal operators found themselves on the verge of bankruptcy, as they were already working with very thin operating margins(see Figure 2), and workers found themselves out of work and no longer able to afford even the necessities. In addition, some governments tried to use the pandemic as an opportunity to radically reform their transportation system. For example, the Kampala Capital City Authority attempted to institute a ban for boda-boda riders in the city centre. In other cities, like Nairobi, there was a push to adopt more digital practices for fares and ticketing, ostensibly as a more hygienic way of operating. In South Africa, subsidies have been considered for paratransit. However, many of these efforts failed as they provided further economic strain on an already economically damaged sector. Furthermore, unlike in Europe or the United States, which put in place various social security measures to support workers, given the substantial FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 14 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

DAR ES SALAAM GAUTENG DAKAR LAGOS KEY Trips to home Trips to workplace Trips to transit station Figure 3: Reduction of Trips Due To COVID-19 Lockdowns in Selected African Cities Source: World Bank(2020_a) FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 15 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Open!! 4 THE BUS RAPID TRANSIT SYSTEM FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 16 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

THE RE-INTRODUCTION OF MASS TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS To better service African cities, there are now efforts to re-introduce mass transportation systems, including higher-occupancy buses as well as urban rail. Although these efforts had already started a long time before the pandemic, the pandemic’s impact on the sector, exposing its overall vulnerability, has increased the urgency for reforms. In many African cities in pre-independence times, largely monopolistic bus systems were introduced(Behrens et al., 2016). However, many of these systems did not survive due to the rapid nature of the urbanisation processes happening without commensurate increases in financial resources and therefore investments in infrastructure. This, coupled with the fact that governments were advised to cease operating subsidies as part of structural adjustment programmes(further detailed in the section World Bank Interventions in Urban Transportation in Africa), meant that throughout the 1990s, many of these bus systems went bankrupt, and in some cities they disappeared altogether. Arguably the most popular current mass transport technology across many African cities is the Bus Rapid Transit(BRT) system. The basic idea behind a BRT is that by just having a bus that can operate on a dedicated road lane, means that it can function with similar efficiency as a train system, yet at far lower cost(Hensher and Golob, 2008; Gomez-Ibanez, Tye and Winston, 2011; Cervero, 2013). This is because there is no need to make the fixed capital infrastructure investments that are needed to run a rail system. The other advantage of this is that a city has the flexibility to change the routing of BRTs depending on how and where the city grows, unlike the rail system, which is fixed, based on its tracks. BOX 4; ITDP BRT SCORECARD THE BRT BASICS(38 POINTS) Dedicated right-of-way Off-board fare collection Intersection treatments Platform-level boarding SERVICE PLANNING(19 POINT) Multiple routes Express, limited and local service Control centre Located in the top ten corridors Demand profile Hours of operations Multi-corridor network INFRASTRUCTURE(13 POINTS) Passing lanes at stations Minimising bus emissions Stations set back from intersections Centre stations Pavement quality STATIONS(10 POINTS) Distances between stations Safe and comfortable stations Number of doors on bus Docking bays and sub-stops Sliding doors in BRT stations COMMUNICATIONS(5 POINTS) Branding Passanger information ACCESS AND INTEGRATION(15 POINTS) Universal access Integration with other public transport Pedestrain access and safety Secure bicycle parking Bicycle lanes Bicycle-sharing integration Source:https://www.itdp.org/library/standards-and-guides/thebus-rapid-transit-standard/the-scorecard/ FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 17 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

The BRT was first designed and implemented in the 1960s in Curitiba, Brazil, a city in a developing country. Since then, it has spread through several Latin American countries with perhaps the most well-known current example, namely the TranMilienio, in Bogotá, Colombia. Both the TransMilenio and the Rede Integrade de Transporte(RIT), the BRT service in Curitiba, are now considered the“gold standard” in BRT operations. Their features include GPS-based service planning, multiple networked routes, peak frequency buses, stations, and feeder bus integration. In recent years, the BRT has become one of the more popular investments in African cities as well, with BRT lines operating in Johannesburg, Cape Town, Lagos, Dar es Salaam; and others being planned for places like Abuja, Kampala, Dakar, and Nairobi. The standard process to evaluate BRTs, which is used by the World Bank and other IFIs, has been developed by the Institution for Transportation and Development Policy(ITDP) and is outlined in Box 4. It notably focuses primarily on the hard infrastructure and technology features of the system. Evaluated on these terms, of the 122 BRT corridors across the globe that the ITDP has evaluated, only 11% attain the“gold standard”(ITDP, 2022). However, these rankings currently do not include aspects with regards to working conditions, as well as broader questions and features, such as affordability. If a BRT is implemented well, it could advance various socially just transportation principles. For example, it could reduce road congestion, enhance availability, reduce air pollution, improve sustainability, and contribute to road safety, and depending on the pricing structures, it can be made more affordable for users. Implementing any mass transportation system, including the BRT, further has potential to create quality employment opportunities. “GOLD STANDARD” PRINCIPLES AND CRITERIA These are all critical aspects to consider when evaluating whether a system can be judged as“gold standard”. Based on these principles, the evidence from this across the globe is decidedly mixed, to the extent that in some cases the BRT has exacerbated existing inequalities, contributing to unjust outcomes in the city: • The TransMilenio in Bogotá, Colombia, which is hailed as one of the best practice models and whose corridors have received the“gold standard” rating in ITDP’s BRT ratings, has shown positive outcomes in subsequent evaluations in terms of increases in public transportation use, better labour market access, and reduction in overall air pollution(Tsivanidis, 2022). At the same time, the existing lines have already far outstripped their capacity, leading to severe overcrowding at peak hours, such that transport users on those routes are now reverting to paratransit. The increase in fare prices, which means the exclusion of the poorest members of society, especially women, has led to violent protests in the past(Rizzo, 2019). Furthermore, only an estimated 1 in 7 workers from the paratransit sector that previously serviced the BRT route, found employment as part of the BRT operations(Dave, 2019). The TransMilenio is also known as an anti-union employer, and as such has not improved the quality of workers’ rights. In fact, private operator’s prioritisation of financial savings, which are profits they can keep, has resulted in significantly deteriorating working conditions and service quality overall(ITF, 2022_d; Dave, 2019). • The world’s longest BRT system, the TransJakarta in Jakarta, Indonesia, covers 206 km along 13 corridors. On a cost basis, it was far cheaper to build than the TransMilenio at only 20% of the cost. Yet, this also affected the functioning of the BRT as it has left out many features that could have resulted in its more FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 18 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

effective management. From evaluations eight years current operating hours from 04:00 am to 09:00 pm after it opened in 2010, it still only serviced 4.3% of mean that workers find it difficult to travel to and Jakarta’s commuters and it exacerbated congestion from their homes without paying a large share of across the city(Gaduh, Gracner and Rothenberg, 2019). their incomes in transport, as no public transport operates at those times(Madumo, 2022). • The Lagos BRT in Lagos, Nigeria was Africa’s first BRT system implemented in 2008, through support from • In one of the newer BRT projects in Africa, the DART the World Bank. It is also heralded as the best practice in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, similar challenges are upon which other African BRTs have been modelled. already emerging. For example, the first routes of the Some of the successes attributed to its introduction DART do not actually follow the most populationare reductions of travel times of over one-third and dense areas of the city and are therefore not serving relieving an estimated economic loss of 240 million USD and servicing the largest portions of the population. for the city each year(Otunola, Harmann and Kriticos, Moreover, the fares are now 55% higher than the 2019). At the same time, although it transports over 350 comparative fares on the minibus services that 000 commuters daily, this is significantly below what is previously serviced those routes, rendering the required from a transport system for a mega-city like new technology less affordable for the poor(Rizzo, Lagos, which has an estimated population of 15.4 2019). A detailed evaluation that was undertaken, million. In addition, it has not expanded since its first and partly funded by the World Bank, found that investment in 2008, still only having two lines covering the BRT had not resulted in any socio-economic only approximately 33.5 km. improvements for the populations living around the areas serviced by the BRT(Morton et al., 2020) • From South Africa, there is over a decade of experience in implementing the BRT system with the Rea Vaya Perhaps one of the most pertinent challenges when it in Johannesburg, MyCiTi in Cape Town, and comes to implementing a public transport system is to A Re Yeng Tshwane Rapid Transit(TRT) in answer the questions about who it serves and whether Tshwane. To this day, the trips on the BRT in Cape the“invisible urbanites”, namely the most vulnerable Town still only account for 5%–6% of all trips taken populations in the city, have access to it. on public transport in South Africa and are nowhere close to meeting overall demand. The Cape Town BRT is operating at a substantial cost, as the overall ridership that was predicted as part of the cost modelling, has fallen far below what was expected. In Tshwane, the National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa(NUMSA), which include operators of the TRT, has engaged in several strikes to demand better working conditions. For example, in May 2022, NUMSA workers went on strike to demand a transportation In terms of the BRT, a summary study undertaken by Vivid Economics(2021) using all the quantitative information available on four BRT systems across the globe, shows that in all the cases, the BRT actually resulted in moderate losses for the lowest income quintile of the population in each of the cities( Figure 4). In the case of the Rea Vaya BRT, the highest gains in fact accrue to the 4th highest income quintile. subsidy to get to and from their place of work. Their FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 19 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

CITY, COUNTRY BOGOTÁ, COLOMBIA ISTANBUL, TURKEY MEXICO CITY, MEXICO JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA BRT TransMilenio Metrobus Métrobús Rea Vaya 1 LOWEST OUTCOME BY QUINTILE 2 3 4 5 HIGHEST KEY LARGE GAIN MODERATE GAIN MODERATE LOSS Figure 4: Distributional Impact of Selected BRT Investments Source: Vivid Economics(2021) FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 20 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

5 WORLD BANK INTERVENTIONS IN URBAN TRANSPORTATION IN AFRICA ATERY BANK OF THE CITY FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 21 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

THE ROLE OF THE WORLD BANK IN SHAPING AFRICAN CITIES The World Bank has played, and continues to play, a major role in shaping the public transportation landscape of African cities. This spans from having played a significant role in the decline of public transportation systems across the continent through the structural adjustment programmes that were promoted in many African countries in the 1980s and 1990s, to now having a central role in many of the BRT and other urban transportation projects across the continent. STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES During the 1980s and 1990s, international financial institutions, most notably the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund(IMF), provided financial support in the form of loans to many African and other developing countries. Attached to these loans were policy conditionalities, termed structural adjustment programmes, that were meant to ensure sound economic policy and therefore economic growth from the loans that were provided. The conditionalities comprised of economic measures that included significant deregulation and privatisation of what were formally public sector services, including transportation. By the early 2000s, structural adjustment programmes were abandoned entirely, having had detrimental and adverse effects on poverty, equality, debt, and growth in many of the countries where they were implemented (Forster et al., 2020). Yet even though these reforms have largely been abandoned, they have had lasting effects, including on the public transportation sector. Most notably, these structural adjustment programmes were one of the main reasons for the collapse of many of the previously existing nationalised bus companies in African cities(Behrens et al., 2016). One of the requirements imposed by the World Bank and IMF on recipient governments was the removal of public sector subsidies. Given that public transport is not profitable, many of these companies went bankrupt and collapsed entirely(Behrens et al., 2016). It was in their place that the paratransit operations that now dominate transportation provision in many African cities, emerged. The collapse of public bus services had wide-reaching detrimental effects not only on the availability of public transportation but also on the workers employed by the system. As the ILO(2021_b) notes, privatisation of municipal services, including urban public transport services, has had negative impacts on the terms of work, its form and intensity, workers’ income and social benefits, as well as in some cases, the overall quantity of employment. It has also impacted collective bargaining within the sector. For example, in Uganda, the Amalgamated Transport and General Workers’ Union(ATGWU), Uganda’s first labour organisation, nearly collapsed with the demise of the state-owned passenger road transport services in the early 1990s (Spooner and Mwanika, 2017). The large public sector layoffs meant that many of these workers were pushed into informality, which in turn led to the rapid decline of ATGWU’s membership. By 2006 this was as low as 2 000 members and mostly made up of airport workers(Spooner and Mwanika, 2017). The move into the informal sector coupled with the loss of bargaining ability, resulted in a rapid decline in working conditions, as illustrated by the precarious nature of work that most informal transport workers in Uganda face today. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 22 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

CURRENT ENGAGEMENTS IN URBAN TRANSPORTATION Although the structural adjustment programmes have now been abandoned, the World Bank’s role in urban public transportation has not. In fact, in some countries they are the largest financier when it comes to the urban transport sector. As an economic institution, their investments in public transportation follow from the logic that cities can be engines for economic growth for countries, if they can foster productive density by connecting businesses, bringing them together to specialise and scale their operations, and through this, create jobs. This connectivity can be achieved through density. One way to do this is to build upwards, yet this is not the main characteristic of many African cities, which on the contrary, are sprawling. In these cases, connectivity can best be achieved by having an efficient and well-functioning transportation system. From an economist’s perspective, introducing such a system requires a combination of credible planning and undertaking the underlying investments in infrastructure – the two key areas that the World Bank supports through financing and technical assistance to operations. FINANCING The types of public transport interventions the World Bank has supported with its financing have included non-motorised transportation systems, bus systems, BRTs, and commuter rail. They have also supported the development of multi-modal transport plans for different cities. Examples of projects, including their project values and timelines, can be found in Box 5. One of the trends in African cities, in terms of the development of traditionally public goods and BOX 5: EXAMPLES OF WORLD BANK FINANCED URBAN PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION PROJECTS IN AFRICA (FULL LIST IN ANNEX 1) LAGOS: Lagos Urban Transport Project 1(2003–2010) and 2(2010–2017) – The Project Development Objectives(PDO) are to:(a) improve mobility along prioritised corridors; and(b) promote a shift to more environmentally sustainable urban transport modes. Total Project Value: 569,500,000 USD KENYA: National Transport Improvement Project (2012–2018) – The Project Development Objectives (PDO) are to:(a) improve the efficiency of road transport along the northern corridor;(b) improve the institutional capacity and arrangements in the urban transport sub-sector; and(c) promote the private sector participation in the operation, financing, and management of transport systems. Total Project Value: 300,000,099 USD DAKAR: Dakar Rapid Transit Pilot Project(2017– 2023) – The Project Development Objective(PDO) is to enhance urban mobility between Dakar and Guédiawaye through the development of a Bus Rapid Transit(BRT) corridor. Total Project Value: 423,600,000 USD KAMPALA: Second Kampala Institutional and Infrastructure Development Project(2014–2022) – The Project Development Objective(PDO) is enhanced infrastructure and institutional capacity of Kampala Capital City Authority(KCCA) to improve urban mobility in Kampala. Total Project Value: 183,750,000 USD Source:https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/ projects-list FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 23 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

services, like public transport, is their increasing commodification through privatisation(Maihack, 2020). Although to date, the majority of the World Bank’s financing for public transportation in African cities has been in the form of concessionary loans and grants, they are increasingly advocating for governments to attract private finance. Even in their Crisis Response Paper to the COVID-19 Pandemic (World Bank, 2020_b), they explicitly advocate for crowding-in private participation for the delivery of public services as the only way to ensure a resilient response and recovery. More broadly, their reasoning is that developing countries have high levels of debt and therefore their governments cannot borrow enough to make such large investments. More specifically, with respect to public transport, the World Bank asserts that governments, especially city governments, do not have sufficient revenue to finance a public transportation system, and therefore the private sector is essential in terms of addressing the financing gap. One of the ways the World Bank is advocating attracting private finance is through the Public Private Partnerships(PPPs) procurement modality. The theory behind PPPs is that the private sector may be better placed to manage the risks associated with the delivery of public infrastructure or a service. To do this, they charge a premium for taking on these risks, which is why private finance is more expensive. PPPs, therefore, should only be considered where the risks can be appropriately transferred by the government to the private sector, and taking into account the premium charged on the finance, it still results in better value for money across the lifetime of the project, compared to the government providing the finance directly. Yet, in particular with PPPs in the public transport sector, the theory in most cases is far from what the experiences have been in reality. First and foremost, public transport, when it works optimally, displays elements of a public good, exuding several positive externalities. These range from social externalities, such as improving access for marginalised groups in the city, to enabling access to health, education, and other services. From a worker’s perspective the transport industry is one of the main sources of employment in most African cities. There are also vast climate benefits that can come from a wellfunctioning and implemented public transport system. Yet, many of these benefits are either not directly quantifiable and/or will not generate a profit. As such, they are unlikely to be accounted for in a purely financial value, for money analysis. More detrimentally, this will have the effect of substantially lowering the quality of service. For example, off-peak, peripheral routes that serve more marginalised communities and women are likely to be less profitable, and therefore more likely to be underserved or fully excluded from a privately provided system(ITF, 2022_d). Further exclusion takes place when it comes to fare structures. With PPPs, or any private involvement in the public system, one primary way that costs are recouped and profits are generated, are through user fees. Without government involvement, these will likely be set without considering the wider societal benefits that public transport generates. For example, the TransMilenio was operated by companies as a cost recovery model through fare collection. The government tried to introduce a pro-poor subsidy scheme to ensure that these fares were not exclusionary. These subsidies FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 24 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

represented a 45% subsidy on trunk routes and a 53% subsidy on feeder routes, both capped at 40 trips per month for eligible customers(ITF, 2022_d). Yet even with these subsidies in place, the lowest income groups were still spending an average of 20%–28% of their income on transport, and 68% of potentially eligible recipients were excluded overall (ITF, 2022_d). This was further exacerbated by the fact that this mode incentivised operating on profitable routes that do not usually align with routes that more marginalised groups take. The overall result of the private provision of public transport has been a retreat away from the explicit aim for everyone to have the same fair access to it. Rather, the focus of private provision has centred on making public transport profitable, which results in it becoming an exclusionary good. As evidence from across the world highlights, to be a public good, it requires significant government engagement through substantial subsidies so as to ensure a wellfunctioning and, importantly, inclusive transport system. OPERATIONS More broadly, the introduction of private finance through PPPs into the public transport system has a dismal track record in other parts of the world, especially in developing countries. Evidence from the Asian Development Bank(ADB) estimates that of the 6 273 PPP projects started in the region between 1991 and 2015, only 216 have been completed(ADB, 2018). The high failure rate was particularly evident amongst public transport projects where the private sector often also cancelled the projects from their side. The Ministry of Finance in each client government is the World Bank’s main counterpart. However, the relevant sector ministries are responsible for the actual delivery of the project. In the case of public transportation, it is usually a ministry like the Ministry of Works, Transport, Infrastructure, or something similar, as well as any of the local governments that are directly impacted. Working with the client, the life cycle of an urban public transport project, from the World Bank’s perspective is broadly outlined as follows: Another area of failure is that where these projects do get • Conceptualisation: As emphasised by the World completed, they often end up having substantially higher Bank, this stage is primarily the responsibility of the financial costs than initially anticipated, eliminating the client government, although they often draw on the value for money that was the initial intent of bringing in World Bank’s staff for ideas and support. The client the private sector. The Rea Vaya BRT in Johannesburg, line and sector ministries are required to involve all for example, predicted a daily ridership of 162 000 in key stakeholders, including for public transportation the modelling done as part of the planning process. It projects, in consultations with the paratransit currently does not even reach half of that and therefore providers. The World Bank’s role is to help provide now requires an estimated 70% operating subsidy from funding to the government to undertake these the government(Siemiatycki, 2019). Interestingly, the comprehensive consultations as well as agreeing with World Bank reached similar conclusions in the 1990s and them on the plan on who will be consulted and how 2000s with respect to attempts to deliver urban rail projects the consultations will be undertaken. Oversight of through PPPs, which were far from delivering optimal value these processes is also provided by the World Bank, for money(Pulido et al., 2018). however, the responsibility for the consultations lies fully with the client government. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 25 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

• Preparation: As part of the project preparation stage, a combination of government and World Bank the client government is required to undertake procurement systems, depending on who is the main Environmental and Social Impact Assessments(ESIA). agency executing the project. These detail the potential environmental and social risks that are associated with the implementation of • Implementation/ Monitoring: During the project the project, how they will be assessed and monitored, implementation phase, there are various Key and outline the plans to mitigate or compensate Performance Indicators(KPIs) that are monitored any relevant impacts. As part of this process, the on a continuous basis. For public transportation guidance from the World Bank requires inclusion projects, KPIs include aspects like ridership, of references to labour and working conditions on affordability of the service, journey time, and the project. However, since 2018, to strengthen this accessibility. In addition, an important KPI for component, all projects that are submitted to the public transport is whether the implementation World Bank’s Board for approval, now also need of the new transport system has resulted in a to develop dedicated Labour Management Plans significant modal shift away from cars. These (LMPs). The purpose of these plans is to detail the KPIs are monitored through questionnaires risks and opportunities to direct labour employed which are undertaken by sampling the ridership. in the execution of the project. The LMPs outline Furthermore, with advances in technology, big potential employment opportunities that will be data is used to supplement the information, created from the project implementation and particularly on a more macro-level. what skills are needed to meet these. They do not, however, include an assessment of existing • Evaluation: Followingtheimplementation,evaluations labour in the sector, including the paratransit are doneto determine the performance. Some of the providers, and the impacts of the project on their lessons are fed into other projects, such as lessons operations, including potential job losses. In from the evaluation of the Dar es Salaam BRT have addition, as they only apply to the workers who fed into the design of the Nairobi, Kampala, and are building the infrastructure for the project, the Kigali BRTs(see Box 6). However, the World Bank LMPs do not cover the transport workers who also strongly maintains that there is not a oneeventually operate the service. Therefore, the LMPs size-fits-all approach and therefore each transport are not like the ESIAs, in the sense that they do project needs to be tailored and contextualised for the not assess the external risk to labour from project situation in which it is being implemented. implementation. Rather they are meant to be a key safeguard instrument for labour working on the In general, for most public transportation projects, the implementation of the project. World Bank’s involvement is mainly focused on the upstream activities, whereas the downstream activities • Procurement: The client government together with are generally left to the government. the World Bank, develops the terms of reference for the consultants who will carry out the project. The actual procurement is then done through FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 26 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

BOX 6: WORLD BANK’S MAIN LESSONS FROM THE DART IMPLEMENTATION • The private sector has a role to play in operating the infrastructure. The primary role for government, with support from the World Bank, is to provide the infrastructure. • There will need to be some type of subsidy from the government’s side. This is also necessary to be able to attract the private sector into the public transport space. Therefore, public transport is a combination of both a public and a private good. • There are complementary services that are required from other modes of transport to unlock the full potential of the BRT. • Middle income users are more concerned with the value of their time and the standard of the service, whilst lower income users are more concerned with affordability. • To be able to adequately develop and enforce regulation, it requires a single institution with the relevant mandate and jurisdiction. Source: Interview FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 27 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

6 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: TOWARDS SOCIALLY JUST PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION WELCOM FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 28 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

MOVING TOWARDS A JUST CITY Bringing together the Just City and the World Bank’s current approach to finance and operations, there are several recommendations of how to better incorporate Just City principles in the identification, preparation, and implementation of public transport systems across Africa, by not only the World Bank but also by other development finance institutions. This includes a major focus on better understanding the local transportation context, then as a first principle, working with this existing system to improve it. Transitioning to a mass transportation system requires a consultative and integrated approach, which centrally positions the various stakeholders, including workers and transport users, in discussions around the introduction of new transportation technology. It also requires ensuring that the government is sufficiently capacitated to be the central provider of public transport services. In doing all of this, balancing different but equally important socially just objectives, is key. BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE LOCAL TRANSPORTATION CONTEXT LABOUR IMPACT ASSESSMENTS As noted, the World Bank now requires that each project develops a LMP. However, these plans are limited to the impact of labour that is directly associated with the project implementation. More broadly, however, for the case of public transportation, particularly where the starting point is a large paratransit sector that is providing employment, detailed Labour Impact Assessments should also be required as part of the project preparation phase, as highlighted by the ILO in their Recommendation no. 204(2015). These Labour Impact Assessments need to consider the impacts on the current workforce, importantly on the jobs threatened and the strategies to mitigate the impacts around this, as well as the quantity and quality of future opportunities that will potentially be created. To ensure the assessments are completed to a high standard, their requirement should be stipulated as part of the World Bank’s Board approval process for projects, similar to the ESIA and LMP. These Labour Impact Assessments need to be done irrespective of the technology chosen(i.e. even in the case of nonmotorised transportation, which can cause displacement in jobs as well). To be able to implement this properly, one cannot simply send enumerators who do not understand the dynamics of the local transportation market. Rather these assessments need to be undertaken through a participatory methodology that trains and involves the workers themselves. The International Transport Workers’ Federation(ITF) and the Global Labour Institute (GLI) are organisations well-versed in carrying out these assessments. Examples of assessments that they have already conducted for BRT projects in Africa, include in Dakar, Senegal(Triméra et al., 2020) as well as in Nairobi, Kenya(Spooner, 2018). Their assessments provide detailed outlines of the structure of the paratransit sector servicing the different routes in the city, including the working conditions for labour. They also provide indepth analysis of the potential impact the BRT system will have on this workforce, as well as livelihoods that are being serviced by the transportation system overall, and highlight workers ideas about considerations to take into account when implementing the BRT. Examples of these recommendations can be found in Box 7. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 29 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

BOX 7: TRANSPORT WORKER’S RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DAKAR LABOUR IMPACT ASSESSMENT Initial conversations that ITF had with the World Bank in 2019 indicate openness to considering instituting Labour Impact Assessments. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE BRT Involve informal workers in the planning and implementation of the BRT project. Give priority to informal workers in BRT recruitment. Provide compensation for loss of earnings or livelihoods. For workers who have to relocate their working space, relocate in new areas with good facilities. IMPROVEMENT OF THE PARATRANSIT OPERATIONS Introduce and implement regulations to ensure formal contracts of employment and a reduction of working hours(and thus cut accident rates and dangerous driving). Improve access to social protection, especially social security and pensions. Upgrade the current vehicle fleet with new, more environmentally sustainable vehicles. Provide improved and expanded opportunities for vocational training, especially for women. Upgrade and improve working spaces, including the provision of basic facilities, such as toilets, drinking water, and shelter from the sun and rain. Source: Timéra et al.(2020), p. 39 Given that the ITF and GLI have now established a detailed methodology, which involves a participatory survey approach from the workforce involved, having them or similar organisations advise and partner on the methodology that is used in Labour Impact Assessments, will be key. They can also provide capacity building on the side of labour as well as on the side of the World Bank and government to fully understand the issues involved. More generally, even outside the Labour Impact Assessments, data is critical to underpinning the planning, implementation, and regulation of public transportation. For many cities, the available data is limited, both in its scope and also with respect to its timeframes. Therefore, further investments will need to be made in improving data availability. The focus should not only be on quantitative data, but also qualitative data, to ensure that there is a strong understanding behind the numbers. WORKING WITH AND TO IMPROVE THE LOCAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM As a first principle, any system must aim to work with and improve existing transportation systems in cities, rather than transpose and displace them. More progress will be made with an incremental approach rather than trying to up-end full systems and replace them. This should include understanding and building upon the routing and stops already being used by the paratransit sector, even where this is serving the poorest population and may not necessarily be profitable. In addition, it should ensure that the immediate needs of the current workforce are considered, including how they can be incorporated into any new system that is being set up. For example, even with the implementation of the BRT, the paratransit system will still need to provide the first and last mile routes to the trunk infrastructure. In this context, it is important to highlight that the current transportation systems in African cities are largely functioning without a subsidy. Therefore, with even slightly more money it is conceivably possible that improvements to current FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 30 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

BOX 8: CAPE TOWN: IMPROVING PARATRANSIT OPERATIONS In Cape Town, South Africa, the World Bank is funding support to improve the operations of the paratransit mini-bus taxi model. This came after the City of Cape Town decided to include a central role for the mini-bus taxi industry as part of its 2017 Integrated Transport Plan. Although this was not envisaged from the outset, after the initial implementation of the MyCiTi BRT, there were plans to further expand its routes, replacing existing minibus taxi systems through higher-capacity trunk and feeder vehicles. However, implementation turned out to be both financially and also politically unfeasible. Instead, the City has now adopted a hybrid approach to integrate the routes served by the MyCiTi and the mini-bus taxi system. The aim, as outlined in the City of Cape Town’s transport plan is as follows: “The Transport Directorate will pursue a number of aspects to integrate the MBT industry including investigating regulatory levers to improve the quality of service for commuters along with an active programme to support the upgrading and formalisation of the industry, consider the role of the Taxi Operating Company model and the mode as a feeder or last mile home service to higher order transit service, capacitate the City to engage effectively with the industry over the long term and pursue training opportunities for the taxi industry. “ As a first stage to effectively operationalise this hybrid model, the World Bank is supporting work that looks at analysing different types of operational and business models for the mini-bus taxi industry as well as developing an overall transition plan. Source: Timéra et al.(2020), p. 39 services can be made, both in terms of quality and also in terms of the quantity of the transportation provided, as well as to the working conditions for the workers. A good example which is currently underway, and being supported by the World Bank, is in Cape Town, South Africa, as outlined in Box 8. In the more immediate term, recovery measures from the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated economic crisis need to be implemented. Although the world currently seems to be transitioning back to a steady pre-pandemic state, new strains of COVID-19 are still emerging and as such we are not fully outside of the pandemic. More importantly, the extreme impacts of the economic losses generated by lockdowns are still affecting the most vulnerable workers, for which there has been no compensation. Therefore, extending this support is not only important for the individuals involved, but investment in public transport is critical for overall pandemic recovery for all cities(ITF, 2021_b). The World Bank and Africa Transport Policy Programme (2020_a) outline the following policy response that the World Bank should consider: “Rapid and comprehensive support to the public transport sector in African cities is critical to(i) avert massive job losses;(ii) prevent the disruption of public services which can aggravate the social exclusion of vulnerable populations; and(iii) avoid further hampering the efficiency of cities.” The ITF’s(2022_c) demands for public transport workers as outlined in the Keep Public Transport Workers Safe from COVID-19 infographic, include measures such as access to health care to protect vulnerable and sick workers, job protection and paid leave, and the FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 31 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

recognition of the key role that public transport workers play in servicing the city through some form of increased risk pay. EXTENSIVE CONSULTATIONS WITH THE DIVERSE STAKEHOLDERS INVOLVED The World Bank and other IFIs, have disbursed billions of dollars in emergency loans over the past years of the pandemic, with the specific aim of supporting the health containment effort and strengthening social safety nets. Yet none of these loans have been earmarked to support the public transport sector, including the workers affected(ITF, 2021_b). There have been discussions, such as during the 2022 World Bank’s Transforming Transportation Conference around the potential to spur opportunity for change and to“build back better” in the longer term. Building back stronger transportation after COVID-19 has also been a pillar of public transport World Bank loans disbursed since March 2020, such as the two public transport loans that went to African public transport systems in this period, namely to Morocco and Egypt(ITF, 2021_b). However, although the loans have a stated aim of strengthening public transport as one of the foundations of a COVID-19 recovery effort, the loans themselves are targeted at covering the losses of those private companies that are operating the public transport services originally set up by the World Bank itself. Furthermore, these loans were developed without any environmental and social safeguards, and neglect to support or protect workers of the systems, only considering the operators(ITF, 2021_b). Therefore, there is little evidence that the broader thinking around job losses and protecting vulnerable populations, as highlighted by the World Bank and Africa Transport Policy Program(SSATP)(2020) policy document, is fully playing out in practice. As noted from the outset, in addition to improving the paratransit sector, there is little doubt that rapidly urbanising cities in Africa will need to incorporate some form of higher-capacity mass public transportation as part of their public transport mix to enhance connectivity, liveability, and also sustainability in cities. Deciding on which technology is most suitable requires a crosssection of multi-disciplinary inputs and stakeholder views, as previously discussed, that extend beyond the government and engineers. These consultations need to take place from the project inception. More importantly, they need to be a deeply locally sensitive process that ensures that consultations take place with the right stakeholders. As such, an extensive stakeholder mapping and analysis should be undertaken at the outset. The process cannot merely rely on taking international templates or best practices from elsewhere and expect them to work seamlessly, particularly in such a politically charged sector. In recent years, the default choice seems to be the BRT system. Whilst there are many positive attributes of this, as noted from the various case studies across the globe, how it is implemented and managed is critical in terms of what benefits it can bring. In most cases, the BRTs implemented have failed to live up to expectations. It is also important to ensure that the discussion around mass public transportation is not just about any one technology. It also cannot be addressed outside considerations for other public and social services more broadly, as well as improvements of labour conditions particularly for the current transport providers. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 32 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Rather, it requires a people-centred approach, with the focus on having an integrated coordinated system overall. No one technology will meet the needs of all the current and future generations in the city, although it can be catalytic in terms of transformation. In this context it is important to also connect this with road construction and improvement projects, as these have a significant impact on public transportation. CONSULTATIONS WITH PARATRANSIT PROVIDERS As a general principle, there needs to be an opening up of the decision-making processes in the conceptualisation and preparation of public transportation projects. There also needs to be continuous engagement, learning, and potential for course correction during the implementation phases. In some cities, on the workers side, there are already organised bodies and unions that exist, for example, in Lagos, Dar es Salaam, and Accra. Yet in many cities, the paratransit sector is still highly fragmented and therefore representative consultation cannot easily be done. Therefore, as a first step, it requires supporting the organisation of the paratransit sector to ensure it can adequately represent the views of its stakeholders. This can be done in a range of ways, including by extending invitations to representatives to participate in fora, up to direct negotiation and input from union representatives. Another potential consideration is setting up tripartite fora, involving the paratransit representatives, the government, and the World Bank, so that each party is able to relay and discuss concerns and challenges. Irrespective of what method of consultation is selected, the outcome, arrived at by involving current transport providers in the conceptualisation, planning, and implementation of the transport system, should be binding. It should not merely be a check-box exercise to claim participation has taken place. Two important considerations when planning for and undertaking these consultations is the fact that the owners of the vehicles are not usually the same stakeholders as the workers, although in some cities both may have their own separate organising structures. In most cases, the workers’ pay a fee to operate the paratransit vehicle. Particularly for larger fleets, it is not always known who the ultimate owners are (Behrens, et al., 2016; Spooner et al., 2020). As such, in undertaking consultations, it will not be sufficient to solely consult potential owners in the industry or their representatives, as their interests and needs may diverge quite substantially from those of the workers. Similarly, the second consideration when deciding who to consult, is to ensure that when there is a union or similar organisation, that they truly represent the views of all stakeholders, including workers. There are cases where some larger transport unions have been coopted politically by transportation owners or politicians more generally, and therefore again may not consider workers’ actual demands. As such, there should always be tangential efforts, perhaps through collaboration with other organisations like FES, to undertake detailed political economy analyses to truly understand the dynamics in the sector and then identify organisations that can ensure workers’ voices and views are adequately represented in the discussions accordingly. CONSULTATIONS WITH DIVERSE TRANSPORTATION USERS As highlighted, public transportation, where it works well, should be a public service that meets the needs of all the residents in the city, particularly considering those who are most vulnerable. Therefore, transport users are by definition a significant stakeholder. However, to date they have been an extremely underrepresented group when it comes to decision-making on public transportation. Given the diversity of stakeholders in FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 33 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

this regard, ensuring that there is fair representation of their views, in the conceptualisation, design, and implementation process, is also key. A further important consideration in this regard is that where the World Bank’s financing comes in the form of a loan, this will likely need to be repaid through citizen taxes or user fees. Therefore, as part of the underlying social contract with government, having them involved at a decision-making stage in terms of the services they will be acquiring, is critical. and amongst development partners, to ensure a crosssectional approach, and importantly, a shift away from a shorter-term discrete project-oriented approach to a longer-term service-oriented approach based on the principles outlined by FES and the ITF(see Box 2). In terms of the development partners, the contractual arrangements and the terms of reference for any implementing project is an important stage, as this is where the direction of the project is determined. Therefore, building in concepts around the Just City and socially just public transport, for example, will be key. “Ensuring representation from marginalised communities is key.” POSITIONING GOVERNMENTS AS CENTRAL PUBLIC TRANSPORT SERVICE PROVIDERS On the user side, the challenge is how to get citizens to engage in an organised and representative way. Some cities, like Kampala, have citizens already represented in urban fora, such as City Development Forums, which can provide a further platform for this type of engagement. Ensuring representation from marginalised communities is key. For example, in moving towards more gender justice with respect to public transportation, involving women’s rights groups will be critical. Which people to consult and how to get them organised and involved, will be a very locally specific process and will require in-depth consultations with local organisations for adequate and appropriate mobilisation. Strong due diligence that the consultations have been done in such a way that they reflect the views of all the relevant stakeholders in the process, is crucial. Outside the data gathering and consultation that will need to take place, a further step will be to work on consolidating all plans and projects that currently exist. This requires overcoming ingrained silos in government One of the conditions usually attached to World Bank funding of BRTs is that they are privately operate under the oversight of government, which is responsible for carrying out quality controls. This may be attributed to the assumption of lower capacity in client governments, but is controversial given the central role government plays in running some of the more successful transportation systems across the globe (Rizzo, 2014; Rizzo, 2018). In addition to this, as has been highlighted, there is an increasing push to have governments attract private finance for public transport provision. Yet, given public transport’s role in providing a public service, the government’s ownership and central participation, in terms of finance, is of critical importance. There are various models on how to engage the government more directly in public transport financing and therefore ownership, for example, supporting governments in raising revenues through taxes that can then be invested into the transport system. The FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 34 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

initial infrastructure of the TransMilenio in Bogotá was primarily financed through the government via a fuel tax (46%), local revenues(28%), and grants from national government(20%). The World Bank only contributed 6% in terms of the finances(ITF, 2022_d). Another model was adopted in Rwanda, where the public transportation transformation process was entirely government-led by the Rwandan Utilities Regulatory Authority. They set out a vision of how they wanted the integrated transportation system to look, and then proceeded to use regulatory policy instruments to drive an incremental transition, starting with incentivising collectivisation of the paratransit sector. Currently, they have managed to improve the fleet mix within their transport system, and to shift to a scheduled service and a cashless system, all without taking on any debt.(Transitec, 2021). Where public transport is meant to support socially just outcomes, it is unlikely to be profitable. This means that not all projects in this sector will be bankable for the private sector. Therefore, this will require moving away from the notion that public transport should be in the domain of the private sector because it is a profitable undertaking, to firmly establishing it as a public good and service, thus re-balancing the notion of cost-recovery vis-à-vis value of service. To achieve this, it will require a commitment of public funds as well as developing new and innovative models of public financing, for example, around climate finance, to support public transportation (ITF, 2022_d). This is critical especially given the fact that socially just public transport will require a government subsidy overall. This is the only way public transport systems across the globe have remained affordable and largely accessible. BALANCING SOCIALLY JUST OBJECTIVES DECENT WORK Decent work needs to become one of the fundamental drivers of how urban transportation reform proceeds across Africa. It is currently, however, one of the objectives that is given hardly any importance within the World Bank project framework. In considering how African cities can become not only productive but also liveable, the provision of many quality jobs is crucial, particularly given the rapidly growing populations of cities. The public transportation sector is one of the most significant providers of both direct and indirect employment opportunities in African cities. As has been highlighted in this brief,that however, the conditions of work are often deplorable. Therefore, in the transition to socially just transportation, improving the current system, and centrally within this, decent work is key to uplifting livelihoods across all sectors of the population, but particularly for those who are most vulnerable. At its core this requires respecting the fundamental principles and rights to work, which are enshrined in national and international laws and conventions, as stipulated in ILO’s Recommendation No. 204(2015). From the World Bank’s perspective of financing new urban transportation projects, this will not only require ensuring full adherence to these laws and conventions, but more concretely ensuring that the budgets for proposed projects include sufficient fiscal room to compensate displaced or otherwise affected workers. This is analogous to what is already World Bank requirements from national governments with respect to those being displaced from their land. Furthermore, within any project design, significant focus needs to be given to both highlighting the opportunities that the informal sector workers may have in operating new transportation infrastructure, as well as in ensuring that capacity assessments are undertaken, leading to FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 35 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

upskilling or reskilling, so that these opportunities can be seized. ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY Achieving ecological sustainability and resilience within a transportation system is another important aspect, which is, amongst other factors, centrally driven by the choice of transportation technology. However, although a transition to the green economy may lead to better quality jobs, there is also the risk that it can place many informal sector jobs in jeopardy. This is because the highest volume of jobs in the urban transportation sector are currently both small-scale and often carried out with environmentally unsustainable means(ILO, 2021_b). As such, balancing considerations of ecological sustainability with other socially just objectives, is also important. One consideration in this respect is what are appropriate benchmarks or what performance indicators in public transport help to identify success. As noted, the World Bank, looks at, amongst other metrics, public transport’s ability to shift people away from cars. This makes sense in societies where mobility has been achieved and there are already a variety of opportunities available. Yet, if this is a central aim for many African cities, then this is necessarily going to focus on the middle class, and men, as they are the majority of car owners across cities. In addition, this focus runs the risk that too much emphasis will be put on technologies to attract the middle class, such as wi-fi in buses, or biasing the routing to their preferred areas. Although the rise in car usage needs to be tackled, there are more efficient ways of incentivising and achieving this, such as fuel taxes, which have the additional benefit of raising revenues for the government to invest in public transport, as discussed. For public transport to be just and inclusive, it is key to focus on other areas so as to fulfil its mandate as both a public good and a public service that is particularly affordable and inclusive, especially for marginalised populations. “ Instead, walking should be seen as part of a larger integrated multi-modal model, providing the first and last mile transportation options.“ The highest modal share of transport in most African cities is walking. Therefore, in any integrated transport system, having a component that focuses on improvements to non-motorised transit is also critical. However, again, it is important to emphasise this cannot be the backbone of a transportation system for a large and growing city as it will restrict the opportunities for those who can only afford to walk, which will not only be the majority of people in the city, but also include the most vulnerable populations. Instead, walking should be seen as part of a larger integrated multi-modal model, providing the first and last mile transportation options. Similarly, when it comes to cycling, which is increasingly being promoted in the public transport space: although this is a significant option which should be considered for certain cities, geography and topography should be first assessed, as it is not likely to be a viable widespread option for hilly cities. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 36 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

CONCLUSION: ADOPTING AN INCREMENTAL APPROACH Investing in better urban public transport is key for cities, as it provides access to jobs, creates jobs, and supports jobs (ILO, 2021_b). In any city it will be impossible to transform the whole system overnight. In fact, improving the public transport system should not be equated to replacing it. Rather, it is working with and building on what already exists and is playing a critical and crucial role both in terms of connectivity in the city, and also more broadly in terms of providing livelihoods, including employment, to many city dwellers. Understanding this will require considering public transport provision through a service- and peopleoriented lens. This more holistic understanding is also the reason why in all cases a cost-benefit analysis needs to be undertaken which includes not only the full costs, but importantly all the benefits of each potential intervention. an incremental approach, firmly embedded in the ILO’s Recommendation no. 204(2015), and with a strong focus on making the actual transition process into a more socially just transport system, is key. In other words, the transition should not be merely seen as a means to an end, but an end in itself. This includes at its core, how to improve the existing transportation systems, particularly with a view to ensuring better working conditions for those employed by it, and a better service for those using it. The route to a well-integrated mass public transportation system cannot just be about implementing the city’s transportation plan. It really needs to be a specifically determined path of sustainability, considering the diverse stakeholders needs. “In many African cities, the paratransit sector is currently fulfilling an essential function and it will continue to have a critical role to play in a future more integrated multi-modal system, particularly with respect to the provision of first and last mile options.” This is a more inclusive approach to financing than what is currently being done, which places a stronger focus on cost-recovery and profitability, rather than on the social benefits, to attract private sector providers. In many African cities, the paratransit sector is currently fulfilling an essential function and it will continue to have a critical role to play in a future more integrated multimodal system, particularly with respect to the provision of first and last mile options. At the same time there should not be an unnecessary romanticisation of paratransit as being able to service all the needs of a rapidly growing city. There is an urgent need to move to higheroccupancy vehicles to ensure all demand is serviced in an efficient, effective, and sustainable way. Therefore, There will always be winners and losers from any reform processes and changes in systems. These need to be pre-identified and mitigation measures implemented for those who lose out. This can include vocational training or upskilling more generally to take into account other job opportunities the new system has to offer. For the paratransit sector, one of these methods will be to investigate the possibilities and interventions that would allow providers to be capacitated in a constructive and competitive manner, to be able to fulfil the operation of the new system. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 37 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

“Cities are not just the built environment, but more importantly they represent the overall hopes and dreams of their residents.” Cities are not just the built environment, but more importantly they represent the overall hopes and dreams of their residents. An efficiently, effectively, and socially just public transport system is core to this. However, such systems are not going to emerge simply through technical solutions – in fact, this is perhaps the easy part. Rather, they will require a deep multi-disciplinary approach, which has a strong foundation and understanding within the local context. In this context, all stakeholders have a role to play, including the World Bank who are bringing to the table large amounts of financing and deep expertise. Effectively combining this with the needs of the citizens, including both workers and users of public transport, through open dialogue, coordination, and incorporation of local knowledge, will result in the more successful outcomes, as shown in the project currently underway in Nakuru, Kenya( Box 9). BOX 9: CASE STUDY NAKURU, KENYA A very good example for how Just City principles can be embedded into the plans of public transportation infrastructure comes from the development of a non-motorised transportation system in Nakuru, Kenya. This project, valued at 471 million KES, and financed by the World Bank, engaged the Socially Just Transport Working Group from the outset in the design phase. With the development of separate motorbike tracks, bicycle lanes, matatu stations, and 22 km of walkways, the Just Cities principles have, through the collaborative approach, been operationalised as part of this project. Source: Interview FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 38 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

7 REFERENCES FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 39 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Agarwal, O.P.(2018). Mass Transit is a Public Good. Everyone – Not Just Riders – Should Pay for it. World Resources Institute. Last accessed on 17th June 2022 from: https://www.wri.org/insights/ mass-transit-public-good-everyone-not-just-riders-should-pay-it. Asian Development Bank(ADB).(2018). Hazard Analysis on PublicPrivate Partnership Projects in Developing Asia. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Behrens, R., McCormick, D. and Mfinanga, D.(2016). Paratransit in African Cities: Operations, Regulation and Reform. Oxon: Routledge. Gomez-Ibanez, J.A., Tye, W.B. and Winston, C.(2011). Essays in Transportation Economics: A Handbook in Honor of John R. Meyer. Washington DC: Brookings Institution. Hensher, D.A. and Golob, T.F.(2008).“Bus Rapid Transit Systems: A Comparative Assessment.” Transportation: Planning, Policy, Research, Practice, 35:4, pp. 501– 518. Institute for Transportation and Development Policy( ITDP).(2022). BRT Scorecared. Last accessed on 12th May 2022 from: https:// www.itdp.org/library/standards-and-guides/the-bus-rapid-transitstandard/the-scorecard/. Cervero, R.(2013).“Bus Rapid Transit(BRT): An Efficient and Competitive Mode of Public Transport.” Working Paper 2013–01. Institute of Urban and Regional Development, UC Berkely. Cissé, O.(2022). Challenges of Urbanisation in Dakar: Land-use Planning, Sanitation, Public Transportation and Public Housing. Dakar: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. City of Cape Town.(2021). Comprehensive Integrated Transport Plan 2018–2023: 2021 Annual Update. Cape Town: City of Cape Town. International Labour Organization(ILO): (2015). R204 – Transition from the Informal to the Formal Economy Recommendation, 2015(No 204). (2021_a). Technical meeting on the future of decent and sustainable work in urban transport services – Notes on the proceedings (Geneva, 30 August–3 September 2021). Last accessed on the 17th June 2022 from: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_ dialogue/---sector/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_836635. pdf. Dave, A.(2019). Our Public Transport. Presentation to the World Bank Brown Bag Series in 2019. FES Kenya.(2020). Towards the Just City in Kenya. Nairobi: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. (2021_b). Technical meeting on the future of decent and sustainable work in urban transport services – Meeting Report(Geneva, 30 August–3 September 2021). Last accessed on the 17th of June 2022 from: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/--sector/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_795523.pdf. FES Nigeria.(2022). Update Summary of Activities – April 2022. Abuja: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Forster, T., Kentikelenis, A.E., Stubbs, T.H. and King, L.P.(2020). “Globalization and health equity: The impact of structural adjustment programs on developing countries.” Social Science& Medicine, 267. (2021_c). Technical meeting on the future of decent and sustainable work in urban transport services – Conclusions on the future of decent and sustainable work in urban transport services(Geneva, 30 August–3 September 2021). Last accessed on the 17th of June 2022 from: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_ dialogue/---sector/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_821901. pdf. Gaudh, A., Gracner, T. and Rothenberg, A.(2019).“’Second-best’ Bus Rapid Transit and traffic congestion in developing countries: Lessons from TransJakarta.” VoxDev, 29.11. 2019. Last accessed on 12th May 2022 from: https://voxdev.org/topic/infrastructureurbanisation/second-best-bus-rapid-transit-and-traffic-congestiondeveloping-countries-lessons-transjakarta. International Transport Workers’ Federation(ITF): (2021_a). A Just Transition for Transportation Workers. Last accessed on 19th May 2022. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 40 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

(2021_b). The Pandemic, Local Public Transport Funding and Union Responses – Part II: The Global South. Last accessed on 19th May 2022 from: https://www.itfglobal.org/sites/default/files/node/page/ files/1%20Funding%20140621.pdf. (2022_a). A Just Transition for Urban Transport Workers: Issues and Experiences from Unions in Cities of the Global South. Last accessed on 19th May 2022 from: https://www.itfglobal.org/en/reportspublications/just-transition-urban-transport-workers-0. (2022_b). P eople’s Public Transport Policy Demands. Last accessed on 19th May 2022 from: https://www.itfglobal.org/en/sector/urbantransport/people%E2%80%99s-public-transport-policy-. (2022_c). A Just Transition for Urban Transport Workers: 10-points for a worker-led, democratically, publicly-led, gender equal and clean transition for transport in our cities. Last accessed on 19th May 2022 from: https://www.itfglobal.org/en/focus/covid-19/global-demands. Maihack, H.(2020).“Foreword” in Towards the Just City in Kenya. Nairobi: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. McLachlan, N.(2019). Progress and way forward on the proposed transformation of the minibus-taxi industry model to enable a new economic responsive approach. Cape Town City Council. Morton, M., Bryan, G., Siddiqi, B. and Balboni, C.(2020).“Evaluating the impacts of the Dar es Salaam Bus Rapid Transit System.” Impact Evaluation Report 10. Washington DC: 3IE. Omenya, A.(2020).“Conceptualising the‘Just City’ in Kenya”. Chapter 1 in Towards the Just City in Kenya. Nairobi: Friedrich-EbertStiftung. Otunola, B., Harmann, O. and Kriticos, S.(2019). The BRT and the Danfo: A case study of Lagos’ transport reforms from 1999–2019. London: The International Growth Centre. (2022_d). People’s Public Transport Policy: Public Financing. Last accessed on 22nd May 2022 from: https://www.itfglobal.org/en/ sector/urban-transport/people%E2%80%99s-public-transportpolicy-. Kamau, A. and Manga, E.(2020).“Is Kenya’s Public Transport System Socially Just?” Chapter 10 in Towards the Just City in Kenya. Nairobi: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Kumar, A., Zimmerman, S. and Arroyo-Arroyo, F.(2021). Myths and Realities of“Informal” Public Transport in Developing Countries: Approaches for Improving the Sector. Washington DC: Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Programme. Pulido, D., Darido, G., Munoz-Raskin, R. and Moody, J.(2018). The Urban Rail Development Handbook, Washington DC: World Bank Group. Rizzo, M: (2014).“The political economy of an urban megaproject: The Bus Rapid Transit project in Tanzania.” African Affairs, 114:455, pp. 249– 270. (2018).“Neoliberalising Infrastructure and its Discontents: The Bus Rapid Transit project in Dar es Salaam.” The Urban Political, pp. 103– 121. Lefebvre, H.(1968). Le Droit à la Ville ed. Die Recht auf Stadt. Hamburg: Nautilus Verlag. Lively, B. G.(2021). Assessing Just Public Transport Outcomes in the Gauteng City Region. Johannesburg: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. (2019).“Dar es Salaam’s new rapid bus system won international acclaim – but it excludes the poor.” SOAS Blog, 23.01.2019. Last accessed on 12th May 2022 from: https://blogs.soas.ac.uk/ development-studies/2019/01/23/dar-es-salaams-new-rapid-bussystem-won-international-acclaim-but-it-excludes-the-poor/. Madumo, N.(2022).“UPDATE: NUMSA strike leads to Tshwane bus services suspension.” In The South African, 11.05.2022. Last accessed on the 19th May 2022 from: https://www.thesouthafrican. com/news/update-numsa-strike-leads-to-tshwane-bus-servicessuspension/. Sakho, P.(2021).“The success of Dakar’s BRT system depends on the inclusion of informal workers.” ITF Blog, 08th February 2021. Last accessed on May 20th 2022 from: https://www.itfglobal.org/ en/news/success-dakars-brt-system-depends-inclusion-informalworkers. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 41 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Siemiatycki, M.(2019). Strategies for the effective procurement and public-private partnerships in the transport sector. London: The International Growth Centre. Spooner, D. and Mwanika, J. M.(2017). Transforming Transport Unions through Mass Organisation of Informal Workers: A Case Study of the Amalgamated Transport& General Workers’ Union (ATGWU), Uganda”. Global Labour Journal 9:2, pp. 150-166 Spooner, D.(2018). Nairobi Bus Rapid Transit: Labour Impact Assessment. Manchester: Global Labour Institute. World Bank: (2020_a). Urban Mobility and COVID-19 in Africa. Washington DC: World Bank. (2020_b). Saving Lives, Scaling-up Impact and Getting Back on Track: World Bank Group COVID-19 Crisis Response Approach Paper. (2022). Project Database. Last accessed on 12th May 2022 from: https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/projects-list. Interviews: Spooner, D., Manga, E.O. and Mwanika, J.M.(2020). Kampala Bus Rapid Transit: Understanding Kampala’s Paratransit Market Structure. Manchester: Global Labour Institute. FES Kenya/ Socially Just Transport Working Group FES Senegal Timéra, M.B., Diongue, M., Sakho, P. and Spooner, D.(2020). Dakar Bus Rapid Transit: Labour Impact Assessment Report Research Paper 2020. Manchester: Global Labour Institute. FES South Africa FES Nigeria Transitec.(2021). Study on the Informal Passenger Transport Reforms in Sub-Saharan Africa – Regulation of Buses and Minibuses: Private Sector Participation as Catalysts. Paris: Agence Française de Développment. Tsivanidis, N.(2022).“Evaluating the Impact of Urban Transit Infrastructure: Evidence from Bogotá’s TransMilenio.” Working Paper. FES Tanzania FES Uganda Global Labour Institute International Transport Workers’ Federation UNWomen.(2021). Women and public transport East Africa: Expanding available data and knowledge base about women and public transport in Nairobi, Kampala and Dar es Salaam. Nairobi: UNWomen. Organisation Development Africa World Bank United Nations Economic Commission for Europe(UNECE).(2008). Report to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Executive Committee on the Implementation of the Priorities of the UNECE Reform for Strengthening Some Activities of the Committee: The Inland Transport Committee and Gender Issues in Transport. Geneva: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. Vivid Economics.(2021). What’s the impact of investing in urban infrastructure in Africa? London: CDC Group. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 42 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

8 ANNEX FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 43 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

ANNEX 1 List of World Bank Investment Projects in Africa(from 2010 onwards) Source: https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/projects-list?os=0 No Country Project Status 1 Arab Republic Active of Egypt 2 Arab Republic Closed of Egypt 3 Burkina Faso Closed 4 Central African Republic Closed 5 Central African Republic Closed Project Name Project Development Objective Project Closing Date Current Project Cost Greater Cairo Air Pollution Management and Climate Change Project EGYPTALEXANDRIA DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Transport and Urban Infrastructure Development Project Emergency Urban Infrastructure Rehabilitation and Maintenance Project Additional Financing CAR- Emergency Urban Infrastructure Rehabilitation& Maintenance To reduce air and climate emissions from critical sectors and increase resilience to air pollution in Greater Cairo. The development objective of the Project is to support local development of the Alexandria Governorate by removing key infrastructural constraints, reducing bar riers to investment and ensuring the socioeconomic integration of the poor The objective of the Project is to improve mobility and access to infrastructure in targeted urban and rural areas and, in the event of an Eligible Crisis or Emergency, to provide immediate and effective response to said Eligible Crisis or Emergency. The Project Development Objective(PDO) is to support the Government of Central African Republic (GoCAR) to increase access to infrastructure and urban services in Bangui, the capital city. The project will support GoCAR to rapidly rehabilitate, restore, improve and expand sustainable access to basic infrastructure services for the population of the most deprived districts of Bangui. The achievement of this objective would support GoCAR’s efforts to demonstrate visible and tangible improvements in the lives of its citizens that are critical for sustaining social and political stability in the country. 12/31/2026 12:00:00 AM 12/31/2012 12:00:00 AM 3/31/2022 12:00:00 AM 9/30/2016 12:00:00 AM 200 000 000 110 000 000 105 000 000 23 900 000 18 000 000 Total Loan Committment (IDA and IBRD) 200 000 000 110 000 000 105 000 000 23 900 000 18 000 000 Grant Amount 0 0 0 0 0 Lending Instrument Investment Project Financing Specific Investment Loan Investment Project Financing Emergency Recovery Loan Emergency Recovery Loan FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 44 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

6 Democratic Active Republic of the Congo 7 Democratic Active Republic of the Congo 8 Democratic Closed Republic of the Congo 9 Democratic Closed Republic of the Congo 10 Democratic Republic of the Congo Closed 11 Eastern Africa Closed 12 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Active 13 Federal Republic of Nigeria Closed 14 Federal Republic of Nigeria Closed Kinshasa Multisector Development and Urban Resilience Project DRC- Urban Development Project Additional Financing DRC Urban Development Project FY13 DRC Emergency Urban and Social Rehabilitation Project DR Congo Private Sector Development and Competitiveness Project ET ROAD SEC. DEV. PROG The project development objective is to improve institutional capacity for urban management and access to select infrastructure and services, as well as to socioeconomic opportunities in Kinshasa. To improve access to basic services and infrastructure, strengthen urban and municipal management of the Target Cities, and to provi de immediate and effective response to an eligible crisis or emergency. To improve access to basic services and infrastructure, strengthen urban and municipal management of the Target Cities, and to provi de immediate and effective response to an eligible crisis or emergency. To respond to urgent challenges by:(i) supporting domestic debt settlement; and (ii) addressing urgent rehabilitation and social needs in targeted areas. The objective of the Project is to support the Borrower#s policy of the promotion of private-sector led growth through:(a) improving the investment climate;(b) supporting parastatal reform in the telecommunications, energy, finance, transport, and mining sectors; and (c) improving mining competitiveness in the Katanga region of the Borrower. 7/31/2026 12:00:00 AM 7/30/2021 12:00:00 AM 5/31/2013 12:00:00 AM 6/30/2014 12:00:00 AM 5/31/2005 12:00:00 AM 500 000 000 100 000 000 100 000 000 180 000 000 183 830 000 485 200 000 Ethiopia: Transport Systems Improvement Project(TRANSIP) Nigeria Lagos Urban Transport Project 2 Lagos Urban Transport Project 2 The proposed Project Development Objective (PDO) is to improve mobility along selected corridors in Addis Ababa and the effectivenes s of road safety compliance systems throughout Ethiopia. The Project Development Objectives are to(a) improve mobility along prioritized corridors; and (b) promote a shift to more environmentally sustainable urban transport modes. The Project Development Objectives are to(a) improve mobility along prioritized corridors; and (b) promote a shift to more environmentally sustainable urban transport modes. 12/31/2023 12:00:00 AM 5/31/2017 12:00:00 AM 5/31/2017 12:00:00 AM 300 000 000 325 000 000 194 500 000 500 000 000 100 000 000 100 000 000 180 000 000 183 830 000 485 200 000 300 000 000 325 000 000 194 500 000 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Emergency Recovery Loan 0 Specific Investment Loan 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Specific Investment Loan 4,500,000 Specific Investment Loan FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 45 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

15 Federal Republic of Nigeria Closed Nigeria Lagos Urban Transport Project 50 000 000 50 000 000 0 16 Gabonese Closed Infrastructure The project development 1/31/2021 100 000 000 100 000 000 0 Republic and Local objective is to improve 12:00:00 AM Development access to urban Project II infrastructure and services in selected underserviced neighborhoo ds and to build basic capacities for municipal management in target cities.</p> 17 Gabonese Republic Closed Local Infrastructure Development Project No change 12/31/2011 34 670 000 34 670 000 0 12:00:00 AM 18 Islamic Republic of Mauritania Closed Urban Development Project Additional Financing To support Mauritania’s central and local governments to:(i) improve living conditions and employment opportunities in the main towns of Mauritania, especially in slums; and(ii) strengthen the institutional framework and capacity for urban and land management. 27 900 000 27 900 000 0 19 Islamic Closed Urban To support Mauritania’s 6/30/2012 99 060 000 99 060 000 0 Republic of Development central and local 12:00:00 AM Mauritania Program governments to:(i) improve living conditions and employment opportunities in the main towns of Mauritania, especially in slums; and(ii) strengthen the institutional framework and capacity for urban and land management. 20 Kingdom of Closed Local The new PDO is to assist 6/30/2019 33 760 000 33 760 000 0 Eswatini Government the Borrower to develop 12:00:00 AM Project(SLGP) institutionally strengthened rural local governments (Tinkhundla), ULGs, and to imp rove the Borrower’s capacity to respond promptly and effectively to an Eligible Crisis or Emergency. 21 Kingdom of Morocco Active Morocco Urban Transport Program PforR AF The Program Development Objective is to strengthen the capacity of urban transport institutions to plan, implement and monitor infra structure and services, and to improve the level of service of urban transport in targeted corridors in the Program Area. 185 000 000 185 000 000 0 22 Kingdom of Active Casablanca The Program Development 3/31/2023 550 000 000 550 000 000 0 Morocco Municipal Objective(PDO) is to 12:00:00 AM Support Program increase the investment capacity of the Municipality of Casablanca, improve the busine ss environment in the Municipality of Casablanca, and enhance access to basic services in the Program Area. Specific Investment Loan Investment Project Financing Specific Investment Loan Adaptable Program Loan Adaptable Program Loan Investment Project Financing Programfor-Results Financing Programfor-Results Financing FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 46 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

23 Kingdom of Morocco 24 Kingdom of Morocco 25 Kingdom of Morocco 26 Kingdom of Morocco 27 Kingdom of Morocco 28 Republic of Benin 29 Republic of Benin Active Closed Closed Closed Dropped Active Closed Morocco Urban Transport Project (P4R) DTF: MA-Local Government Support Program MA-Promoting Accessibility of Persons with Limited Mobility (PLM) Urban Transport Sector DPL Morocco-Second Urban Transport Sector DPL Benin Cross Border Tourism and Competitiveness Project Benin Cities Support Project/ PAURAD The Program Development Objective is to strengthen the capacity of urban transport institutions to plan, implement and monitor infra structure and services, and to improve the level of service of urban transport in targeted corridors in the Program Area. The Objective of the Project is to set up a lasting program to provide Local Governments in the Project Area access to decentralized support services and assistance to institutionalize inter municipal cooperation. to promote the physical accessibility for persons with limited mobility by demonstrating its feasibility through a pilot project inMarrakesh. The objectives are to develop the sector’s institutional framework, improve the delivery of urban transport services, and improve environmental and social sustainability. Project Development Objective(Note: will be disclosed in the MOS) Support continuation of reforms of the Urban Transport Sector including environmental and social aspects, and measures to reduce transport CO2 emissions. 12/10/10. Board approval date postponed from 3/30/12 to 9/27/12 due to time needed to identify sound program of actions with the Government and to coordinate with the climate change DPL. 5/6/11. FY12 BB request$175K, including full identification of investment projects in Casablanca and Marrakech. Concept review is planned for January 2012. Board Schedule Comments new TTL Olivier Le Ber since Nov 1, 2011 The Project Development Objective to support the continued operation of micro and small firms impacted by the COVID-19 crisis and im prove selected aspects of the enabling environment for Benin’s tourism. The Project’s development objective is to increase access to urban services and improve urban management in selected cities of Benin. 6/30/2024 12:00:00 AM 3/2/2019 12:00:00 AM 1/31/2017 12:00:00 AM 12/31/2011 12:00:00 AM 12/31/2022 12:00:00 AM 12/31/2020 12:00:00 AM 700 000 000 5 800 000 2 850 000 136 700 000 0 50 000 000 60 000 000 700 000 000 5 800 000 2 850 000 136 700 000 0 50 000 000 60 000 000 0 Programfor-Results Financing 4,550,000 Investment Project Financing 2,850,000 Specific Investment Loan 0 Development Policy Lending 0 Development Policy Lending 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 47 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

30 Republic of Benin Closed Second Decentralized City Management Project Additional Financing The development objectives are to provide better quality and cost-effective basic services to urban residents, especially the poor, of Benin’s primary and secondary cities: Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Parakou (primary cities); Ouidah, Abomey, Abomey-Calavi, Bohicon, Nattitingou, Lokossa, Djougou, and Kandi(secondary cities). 46 620 000 46 620 000 0 31 Republic of Closed Second The development objective 6/29/2012 90 000 000 90 000 000 0 Benin Decentralized of the second phase of the 12:00:00 AM City APL is to increase access Management to infrastructure and basic services for residents of Benin’s primary cities (Cotonou, Porto-Novo and Parkaou) and selected secondary cities(AbomeyCalavi, Lokossa, and Kandi). 32 Republic of Botswana Active Integrated Transport The primary development 6/30/2022 385 200 000 385 200 000 0 objective of the project is 12:00:00 AM to enhance the efficiency of the transport system by building modern businessman agement capacity and improving the strategic planning aspects of inter-regional and critical transport infrastructure. 33 Republic of Burundi Closed Public Works and Urban Management Project Additional Financing The project development objective is to increase access to basic socio economic services in target areas and to short-term employment opportunities. This would be achieved through the combination of demand-based and trunk infrastructure investments programs covering urban centers of all provinces and targeted municipal support programs to strengthen municipal management and fiscal performance at the local level in the three main cities, Bujumbura, Gitega, and Ngozi. The project development objective is to increase access to basic socio economic services and to short-term employment opportunities in target areas. 15 000 000 15 000 000 0 34 Republic of Closed Public Works The project development 6/30/2015 46 400 000 46 400 000 0 Burundi and Urban objective is to increase 12:00:00 AM Management access to basic socio Project economic services and to short-term employment opportunities in target areas. 35 Republic of Active Cameroon: The PDO is to improve 3/31/2024 160 000 000 160 000 000 0 Cameroon Inclusive and urban management and 12:00:00 AM Resilient Cities access to infrastructure Development in selected urban areas, Project particularly for poor neighborhoods, an d increase resilience to natural hazards and other eligible crises. Adaptable Program Loan Adaptable Program Loan Investment Project Financing Specific Investment Loan Specific Investment Loan Investment Project Financing FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 48 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

36 Republic of Active Cameroon The PDO is to:(a) 6/30/2024 206 700 000 206 700 000 0 Cameroon Transport Sector strengthen transport 12:00:00 AM Development planning;(b) improve Project transport efficiency and safety on the BabadjouBamenda section of the Yaounde- Bamenda transport corridor; and(c) enhance safety and security at selected airports. 37 Republic of Cameroon Closed Urban and Water Development Support Project Additional Financing The project development objective is to increase access of the urban population, particularly those living in low-income settlements, to basic infrastructure and services, including water supply. To achieve this objective, the project will(i) assist the various stakeholders of urban development in the preparation and implementation of tools and investments designed to increase access to services to as large a number of beneficiaries as possible; and(ii) support and facilitate the implementation of the public-private partnership in the provision of urban water services. 28 700 000 28 700 000 0 38 Republic of Closed CM-Urban The project development 8/31/2015 117 430 316 117 430 316 0 Cameroon and Water objective is to increase 12:00:00 AM Development access of the urban Support Project population, particularly those living in low-income settlements, to basic infrastructure and services, including water supply. To achieve this objective, the project will(i) assist the various stakeholders of urban development in the preparation and implementation of tools and investments designed to increase access to services to as large a number of beneficiaries as possible; and(ii) support and facilitate the implementation of the public-private partnership in the provision of urban water services. 39 Republic of Active Urban The project development 6/30/2022 120 000 000 120 000 000 0 Congo Development objectives are to:(1) 12:00:00 AM and Poor improve access to Neighborhood infrastructure and basic Upgrading services for people living Project in selected unplanned settlements in Brazzaville and Pointe Noire; and(2) strengthen government and municipal capacity for urban upgrading.</p> Investment Project Financing Specific Investment Loan Specific Investment Loan Investment Project Financing FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 49 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

40 Republic of Active Abidjan Urban The Project Development 10/14/2025 540 000 000 540 000 000 0 Cote d’Ivoire Mobility Project Objective is to improve 12:00:00 AM accessibility to economic and social opportunities and to increase efficiency of the public transport system along the YopougonBingerville corridor and its feeder lines in Abidjan. 41 Republic of Active GREATER The Project Development 12/31/2025 400 000 000 400 000 000 0 Cote d’Ivoire ABIDJAN Objective(PDO) is to 12:00:00 AM PORT- CITY support the improvement INTEGRATION of urban management, PROJECT logistics efficiency, port accessibility, and urban mobility in the Greater Abidjan Area(GAA) and to provide immediate and effective response to eligible crisis or emergenc y. 42 Republic of Active CI-Infrastructure The proposed PDO is 7/31/2023 128 000 000 128 000 000 0 Cote d’Ivoire for Urban to create conditions for 12:00:00 AM Development improved competitiveness and in the target cities in the Competitiveness territory of the Recipient. of second cities 43 Republic of Closed Cote d’Ivoire The objective of the project 9/30/2020 200 000 000 200 000 000 0 Cote d’Ivoire- Emergency is to improve access to 12:00:00 AM Infrastructure basic infrastructure in Renewal Project targeted urban and rural areas, and, in the event of an Eligible Crisis or Emergency, to provide immediate and effective response to said Eligible Crisis or Emergency. 44 Republic of Closed Cote d’Ivoire Emergency Urban Infrastructure Project (Additional Financing) The Project Development Objective(PDO) is to increase access to and improve the quality of urban infrastructure and services in the country#s two largest cities, Abidjan and Bouak#. The achievement of this objective would support GoCI#s efforts to demonstrate visible and tangible improvements in the lives of its citizens, a critical step for sustaining social and political stability and economic recovery in the country. 50 000 000 50 000 000 0 Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Emergency Recovery Loan FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 50 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

45 Republic of Closed RCI- Emergency The Project Development 3/31/2014 94 000 000 94 000 000 0 Cote d’Ivoire Urban Objective(PDO) is to 12:00:00 AM Infrastructure increase access to and (FY08) improve the quality of urban infrastructure and services in the country#s two largest cities, Abidjan and Bouak#. The achievement of this objective would support GoCI#s efforts to demonstrate visible and tangible improvements in the lives of its citizens, a critical step for sustaining social and political stability and economic recovery in the country. 46 Republic of Closed Second The proposed Project 12/31/2019 5 600 000 5 600 000 0 Djibouti Urban Poverty Development Objective 12:00:00 AM Reduction Project (PDO) is to increase access (PREPUD II) to basic urban services in Quartier 7(Q7) in Djibouti City. 47 Republic of Ghana Active Ghana Transport Sector Project Additional Fin The project development objective(PDO) is to improve mobility of goods and passengers through reduction in travel time and vehicle operating cost, and to improve road safety standards. This objective will be achieved through strengthening the capacity of transport institutions in planning, regulation, operations and maintenance, and through infrastructure investment. 25 000 000 25 000 000 0 48 Republic of Closed Transport Sector The project development 12/31/2018 225 000 000 225 000 000 0 Ghana Project objective(PDO) is to 12:00:00 AM improve mobility of goods and passengers through reduction in travel time and vehicle operating cost, and to improve road safety standards. This objective will be achieved through strengthening the capacity of transport institutions in planning, regulation, operations and maintenance, and through infrastructure investment. 49 Republic of Closed Ghana Urban The key objective of the 12/15/2015 83 000 000 83 000 000 0 Ghana Transport Project project is to: 12:00:00 AM Improve mobility in areas of participating metropolitan, municipal or district assemblies(MMDAs) through a combination of traffic engineering measures, management improvements, regulation of the public transport industry, and implementation of a Bus Rapid Transit(BRT) system. Emergency Recovery Loan Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Specific Investment Loan FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 51 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

50 Republic of Ghana Closed 51 Republic of Ghana Closed 52 Republic of Guinea Closed 53 Republic of Active Guinea-Bissau 54 Republic of Kenya Closed 55 Republic of Liberia Closed Ghana Urban Transport Project GH Second Urban Environmental Sanitation Project Urban III- Phase II Guinea-Bissau Rural Transport Project KENYA: NATIONAL URBAN TRANSPORT IMPROVEMENT PROJECT Liberia Urban Rural Infrastr. Rehab. Additional Financing The key objective of the project is to: Improve mobility in areas of participating metropolitan, municipal or district assemblies(MMDAs) through a combination of traffic engineering measures, management improvements, regulation of the public transport industry, and implementation of a Bus Rapid Transit(BRT) system. The project development objective is to improve urban living conditions in regard to environmental health, sanitation, drainage, vehicular access, and solid waste management in a sustainable fashion, with special emphasis on the poor. The development objectives of UDP 3 phase II are:(a) to improve the provision of infrastructure and services in Conakry and secondary cities; and(b) to improve the fnancial and organizational management of municipalities in support of the decentralization process. The development objective is to improve the rural population’s physical access to markets and social services in selected areas. The Project Development Objectives(PDO) are to: (a) improve the efficiency of road transport along the northern corridor;(b) improve the institutional capacity and arrangements in the urban transport sub sector; and(c) promote the private sector participation in the operation, financing and management of transport systems. The project supports government’s goal of improving road access in Monrovia andtargeted rural areas, as well as improving institutional structure for technical management of the road sector. The project supports government’s goal of improving road access in Monrovia and targeted rural areas, as well as improving 12/15/2015 12:00:00 AM 12/31/2012 12:00:00 AM 6/30/2013 12:00:00 AM 5/15/2025 12:00:00 AM 12/31/2018 12:00:00 AM 90 000 000 80 930 000 15 000 000 15 000 000 300 000 039 29 000 000 90 000 000 80 930 000 15 000 000 15 000 000 300 000 039 29 000 000 7,000,000 Specific Investment Loan 0 Specific Investment Loan 0 Adaptable Program Loan 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 52 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

56 Republic of Closed LR-Urban The project supports 6/30/2017 129 200 000 129 200 000 0 Liberia and Rural government’s goal of 12:00:00 AM Infrastructure improving road access in Rehabilitation Monrovia and targeted Project rural areas, as well as improving institutional structure for technical management of the road sector. 57 Republic of Madagascar Closed MG- Integrated Growth Poles Additional Financing Credit The overall purpose of the proposed project is to help provide the adequate business environment to stimulate and lead economic growth in three selected regional poles. The specific objectives are to assist the GOM to:(i) construct and rehabilitate critical infrastructure essential for sustained economic activity in the tourism, manufacturing, agribusiness and mining sectors;(ii) put in place appropriate incentive measures to achieve rapid growth;(iii) develop the instruments to ensure equitable, sustainable growth; and(iv) strengthen the capacity of local authorities to formulate, prepare, implement, and manage medium- and long-term integrated of future regional development projects The PDO is to increase business and formal job creation in particular in the mining, tourism and agribusiness sectors in the Nosy Be and Taolagnaro regions. 40 000 000 40 000 000 0 58 Republic of Active MALAWIThe overall objective is to 6/21/2022 0 0 0 Malawi Disaster Risk strengthen the institutional 12:00:00 AM Management and financial capacity Development of the Government of Policy Financing Malawi for multi-sectoral with Cat DDO disas ter and climate risk management. 59 Republic of Closed Urban Local The Revised Project 12/31/2019 70 000 000 70 000 000 0 Mali Government Development Objective is 12:00:00 AM Support Project to support strengthened institutional performance of targeted urban local governmentsan d to contribute to improved infrastructure services in targeted cities. 60 Republic of Active Mozambique To improve basic urban 12/31/2026 0 0 0 Mozambique Northern Urban infrastructure and living 12:00:00 AM Development conditions in selected Project cities in the North of Mozambique 61 Republic of Closed Maputo Improve the delivery and 6/30/2017 105 000 000 105 000 000 0 Mozambique Municipal sustainability of priority 12:00:00 AM Development municipal services in Program II Maputo Municipality. (MMDP II) Emergency Recovery Loan Specific Investment Loan Development Policy Lending Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Adaptable Program Loan FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 53 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

62 Republic of Closed Mozambique 63 Republic of Closed Mozambique 64 Republic of Niger Closed 65 Republic of Rwanda Active 66 Republic of Rwanda Active 67 Republic of Rwanda Closed 68 Republic of Rwanda Closed 69 Republic of Senegal Active 70 Republic of Senegal Active Mozambique -Roads and Bridges Management and Maintenance Program- Phase II ProMaputo, Maputo Municipal Development Program Local Urban Infrastructure Development Project Second Rwanda Urban Development Project Kigali Environmental Management and Climate Compatible Development Program Rwanda Urban Development Project Urban Infrastructure and City Management Project Dakar Bus Rapid Transit Pilot Project Transport& Urban Mobility Additional Financing The project development objective of this phase of the APL is to improve access of the population to all-season roads through maintenance, rehabilitation and upgrading of the classified road network. APL Phase 1: Strengthen the Maputo City Council’s institutional and financial capacity to support achievement of long term service delivery goals, and to implement selected priority investments. The project development objective is to increase and sustain access of urban residents to basic infrastructure and services, particularly those living in deprived settlements. To improve access to basic services, enhance resilience and strengthen integrated urban planning and management in the City of Kigal i and the six secondary cities of Rwanda. To improve access to basic services, enhance resilience and strengthen integrated urban planning and management in the City of Kigal i and the six secondary cities of Rwanda. The project development objective is to provide access to basic infrastructure and enhance urban management in selected urban cen ters of the participating districts.</ p> The Development Objective of the first phase of the APL is to increase access to priority urban infrastructure in Kigali and two secondary cities(Ruhengeri and Butare). The Project Development Objective is to enhance urban mobility between Dakar and Guédiawaye through the development of a Bus Rapid T ransit (BRT) corridor. 12/31/2018 12:00:00 AM 8/31/2011 12:00:00 AM 1/15/2013 12:00:00 AM 12/31/2025 12:00:00 AM 6/30/2021 12:00:00 AM 12/31/2009 12:00:00 AM 6/30/2023 12:00:00 AM 2 670 570 000 44 450 000 30 000 000 175 452 715 0 100 000 000 27 300 000 426 300 000 65 000 000 2 670 570 000 44 450 000 30 000 000 175 452 715 0 100 000 000 27 300 000 426 300 000 65 000 000 0 0 0 0 8,070,000 0 0 0 0 Investment Project Financing Adaptable Program Loan Specific Investment Loan Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Adaptable Program Loan Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 54 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

71 Republic of Closed Local Authorities The program’s development 12/16/2013 157 000 000 157 000 000 0 Senegal Development objectives are to:(a) 12:00:00 AM Program strengthen the capacity of urban municipalities to improve resource mobilization, and municipal and urban management; and(b) increase access to and quality of public infrastructure and services in urban areas. 72 Republic of Active Integrated and The Project Development 6/30/2024 0 0 0 Sierra Leone Resilient Urban Objectives(PDO) are to 12:00:00 AM Mobility Project improve quality public transport, address climate resilience, improve road safety in selected areas and enhance institutional capacity in the transport sector. 73 Republic of Active Togo- The project development 12/31/2023 0 0 0 Togo Infrastructure objective(PDO) is to 12:00:00 AM and Urban improve access to urban Development infrastructure and basic Project services in selected cities and stren gthen the institutional capacity of participating cities in urban planning and management. 74 Republic of Togo Closed Emergency Infrastructure Rehabilitation& Energy Project - Additional Financing The Project Development Objective is to increase access to improved urban infrastructure services in Lomé. 14 000 000 14 000 000 0 75 Republic of Togo Closed Emergency Infrastructure Rehabilitation and Energy Project Additional Financing The Project Development Objective is to increase access to improved urban infrastructure services in Lomé. 15 000 000 15 000 000 0 76 Republic of Closed Emergency The Project Development 6/30/2016 26 820 000 26 820 000 0 Togo Infrastructure Objective is to increase 12:00:00 AM Rehabilitation access to improved urban and Energy infrastructure services in Project Lomé. 77 Republic of Active Uganda: To improve regional 12/31/2022 153 890 000 153 890 000 0 Uganda Albertine Region and local access to 12:00:00 AM Sustainable infrastructure, markets, and Development skills development in the Project Albertine Region. 78 Republic of Active Second Kampala The project development 11/30/2022 183 750 000 183 750 000 0 Uganda Institutional and objective(PDO) is enhanced 12:00:00 AM Infrastructure infrastructure and Development institutional capacity of Project KCCA to improve urban mobility in Kampala. 79 Republic of Closed Road The revised project 6/30/2014 380 860 000 380 860 000 0 Zambia Rehabilitation development objectives 12:00:00 AM and Maintenance are to:(i) develop the Project institutional capacity for sustainable management of public roadinfrastructure and road safety,(ii) preserve road assets in targeted transport corridors, and(iii) rehabilitate and construct targeted transport infrastructure. Specific Investment Loan Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Specific Investment Loan Emergency Recovery Loan Emergency Recovery Loan Investment Project Financing Investment Project Financing Adaptable Program Loan FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 55 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

80 Somali Democratic Republic 81 United Republic of Tanzania 82 United Republic of Tanzania 83 United Republic of Tanzania 84 United Republic of Tanzania 85 United Republic of Tanzania Closed Active Active Active Active Active Somali Urban Investment Planning Boosting Inclusive Growth for Zanzibar: Integrated Development Project Dar es Salaam Urban Transport Improvement Project TSCP Second Additional Financing Dar es Salaam Metropolitan Development Project Tanzania Strategic Cities Project AF To provide:(i) an assessment of the feasibility of, and preliminary plans for, selected urban investment and institutional strength ening activities in targeted cities, and(ii) enhanced project preparation and implementation capacity of participating agencies. The project development objective(PDO) is to increase access to improved living conditions and service delivery in targeted areas i n Zanzibar and to enhance institutional capacity of the government. The Project Development Objective(PDO) is to improve transport mobility, accessibility, safety, and quality of transport service de livery along the selected corridors in Dar es Salaam. To improve the quality of and access to basic urban services in Participating LGAs. The objective of the Project is to improve urban services and institutional capacity in the Dar es Salaam Metropolitan Area and to facilitate potential emergency response. To improve the quality of and access to basic urban services in Participating LGAs. 12/31/2021 12:00:00 AM 6/30/2026 12:00:00 AM 12/31/2023 12:00:00 AM 1/2/2023 12:00:00 AM 6 000 000 150 000 000 450 800 000 100 000 000 330 300 000 50 600 000 6 000 000 150 000 000 450 800 000 100 000 000 330 300 000 50 600 000 6,000,000 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing 0 Investment Project Financing FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 56 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

86 United Republic of Tanzania Closed TANZANIA SECOND CENTRAL TRANSP CORRIDOR PROJECT- ADD’L FINANC The project development objective(PDO) is to support Tanzania’s economic growth by providing enhanced transport facilities that are reliable and cost effective, in line with MKUKUTA and the National Transport Policy and Strategy. Following are the key monitoring indicators for the achievement of the PDO:(i) reduction of rush hour travel time of public transport users in Dar es Salaam;(ii) reduced vehicle operating cost on the Korogwe to Same trunk road; and(iii) satisfactory rating of Zanzibar airport facilities by both airlines and passengers. The project development objective(PDO) is to support Tanzania’s economic growth by providing enhanced transport facilities that monitoringindicators for the achievement of the PDO:(i) reduction of rush hour travel time of public transport users in Dar es 100 000 000 100 000 000 0 87 United Closed Tanzania To improve the quality of 11/26/2020 175 500 000 175 500 000 0 Republic of Strategic Cities and access to basic urban 12:00:00 AM Tanzania Project services in Participating LGAs. 88 United Closed Second Central The project development 12/31/2016 241 600 000 241 600 000 0 Republic of Transport objective(PDO) is to 12:00:00 AM Tanzania Corridor Project support Tanzania’s economic growth by providing enhanced transport facilities that are reliable and cost effective, in line with MKUKUTA and the National Transport Policy and Strategy. Following are the key monitoringindicators for the achievement of the PDO:(i) reduction of rush hour travel time of public transport users in Dar es Salaam;(ii) reduced vehicle operating cost on the Korogwe to Same trunk road; and(iii) satisfactory rating of Zanzibar airport facilities by both airlines and passengers. Specific Investment Loan Investment Project Financing Specific Investment Loan FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 57 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

89 United Closed Local The Board approved revised 6/30/2012 60 800 000 60 800 000 0 Republic of Government PDO are: 12:00:00 AM Tanzania Support Project (i) strengthen fiscal decentralization, improve accountability in the use of local government resources, and improve management of intergovernmental transfers and demand-driven urban investments; and (ii) increase access to infrastructure and services in the unplanned areas of Dar es Salaam and improve revenue performance for sustainable operations and maintenance. Component 1 of LGSP is designed to support the GoT Local Government Capital Development Grant System, inter alia through provision system of capital and capacity building grants for local government authorities (LGAs). This component aims to support(i) a sound intergovernmental fiscal framework and(ii) capacity-building so that LGAs can better meet their service-delivery obligations. Together with bilateral donors, the Project targets all 132 LGAs in the country. Component 2 of LGSP focuses on Dar es Salaam, supporting the upgrading of infrastructure and services in unplanned settlements, and improving local revenue collection and systems for operation and maintenance of infrastructure. Component 3 is designed to strengthen capacity in the Prime Minister#s Office- Regional Administration and Local Government(PMO-RALG) to perform monitoring, oversight and management functions with respect to the grants supported by Component 1. Specific Investment Loan FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 58 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 59 TRADE UNION COMPETENCE CENTRE, SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA