VOICES WITH PURPOSE A MANUAL ON COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE CONCEPTUAL MODULE

VOICES WITH PURPOSE A MANUAL ON COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE CONCEPTUAL MODULE AUTHORS Rafael Obregón Gálvez Jair Vega Casanova

© 2019 FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG(FES) fesmedia Africa Windhoek, Namibia Tel:+264(0)61 417523 E-mail: info@fesmedia.org www.fesmedia-africa.org This work is licensed under the Creative Commons AttributionNonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Licence. You are free to copy, distribute and display this work and to make derivative works, provided you: 1. Give credit fesmedia Africa, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung and the Universidad del Norte 2. Do not use this work for commercial purposes; and 3. Distribute any works derived from this publication under a licence identical to this one. To view a copy of this licence, visit: creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900, Mountain View, California, 94041, USA ISBN: 978-99945-77-55-2

INTRODUCTION Civil society actors in Africa are today finding more opportunities to encourage citizen and community participation in promoting social change, yet communicating their efforts effectively and on a greater scale remains a vital challenge. The regional media project of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) in Africa, fesmedia Africa, conducted a study to assess whether civil society organisations(CSOs) in Africa integrate communication strategies into their work, and if so, how. Our research found that many African CSOs have not yet gained a comprehensive vision and understanding of the benefits of communication planning. Numerous interviews conducted across Africa with communication experts, trainers and non-governmental organisations(NGOs) showed that organisations often incorporate communication tools, such as interview, press release and social media skills, without a clear communication plan to usefully deploy them and engage their audiences. A communication plan addresses aspects such as crafting a communication strategy guided by clear institutional aims, relevant data and evidence; public positioning of an organisation; developing diversified messages to connect and engage with a variety of target audiences; cultivating media and advocacy contacts; alliance building; and formulating tailored internal and external communication strategies. To address African CSOs’ need for effective strategic communication planning, fesmedia Africa has developed the programme‘Communication Strategies for Development and Social Change’. The programme aims to: y y empower civil society actors to effectively articulate, represent and advance their interests, causes and goals in the policy-making process; and y y guide CSOs in using modern communications methodologies to broaden opportunities for socio-political participation and social change. To this end, one component of the programme has been the elaboration of Voices with Purpose – A Manual on Communication Strategies for Development and Social Change, which consists of three parts: 1) Conceptual Module, 2) Participant’s Module and 3) Facilitator’s Module. Equipped with key conceptual foundations, applicable strategies and a step-by-step guide to designing a communication strategy, civil society actors – be they trade unions, women’s organisations, human rights activists, young leaders, or specific campaigns – should find themselves in a better position to represent and mobilise action for their causes. Whilst the methodology is directed at CSOs, it is also applicable to interested government institutions and political entities. The Manual was developed by Rafael Obregón Gálvez, Chief of the Communication for Development Section at UNICEF in New York; and Jair Vega Casanova, Professor in the Department of Social Communication at the Universidad del Norte in Colombia, along with his dedicated team. It builds on a previous version which they co-authored in 2002, with the support of the regional media project of the FES in Latin America. Prior to publishing, the draft Manual was tested with NGOs in Colombia and an NGO in Namibia. Together with the highly constructive inputs of 17 communication experts from 12 countries across the African continent, the Manual was adapted for African audiences. These experts were in turn trained as facilitators in the use of this methodology to support CSOs keen to design comprehensive communication strategies that will effectuate positive social change. Given the advanced knowledge and practice with social communication processes in Latin America, the vast expertise of the authors from this region, and the under-use of valuable experiences from regions of the world with greater similarity to African realities, the space created for the exchange of South-South experiences, mutual learning and dialogue was especially rich and inspiring. We are pleased to share these communication concepts with an African audience. Sara-Nathalie Brombart Director, fesmedia Africa Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung

CONTENTS Foreword................................................................................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements...........................................................................................................................................................................iv Author biographies............................................................................................................................................................................v Overview of the manual.................................................................................................................................................................vi Overview: Conceptual Module................................................................................................................................................... vii CHAPTER 1: CURRENT SITUATION OF ORGANISATION 1.1 Organisational characteristics .................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Organisational aims and objectives............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1.2 Strategic plan...........................................................................................................................................................................2 1.1.3 Measures.....................................................................................................................................................................................2 1.2 SWOT analysis ......................................................................................................................................................................................2 CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS 2.1 Concept of development ................................................................................................................................................................3 2.1.1 The dominant paradigm.....................................................................................................................................................3 2.1.2 The dependency paradigm................................................................................................................................................4 2.1.3 The alternative paradigm...................................................................................................................................................4 2.1.4 Other perspectives................................................................................................................................................................5 2.2 Concept of change ............................................................................................................................................................................5 2.2.1 Individual change approach.............................................................................................................................................6 2.2.2 Social change approach......................................................................................................................................................6 2.2.3 Communication for social change.................................................................................................................................6 2.3 Citizenship and democracy ..........................................................................................................................................................7 2.3.1 Citizenship.................................................................................................................................................................................7 2.3.2 Democracy.................................................................................................................................................................................8 2.4 Communication as a social process .........................................................................................................................................8 2.5 Communication and cultural change .................................................................................................................................... 10 2.5.1 The concept of culture.................................................................................................................................................... 10 2.5.2 Communication and culture.......................................................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 3: COMMUNICATION MODELS, PARADIGMS AND PLANNING MODELS 3.1 Communication models ................................................................................................................................................................12 3.1.1 Vertical(or diffusion-based) communication models.....................................................................................12 3.1.2 Horizontal(or participatory) communication models.....................................................................................14 3.1.3 An integrative view of the models..............................................................................................................................16 3.2 Paradigms of communication for development ..............................................................................................................16 3.2.1 Information diffusion approach(or dominant paradigm)..............................................................................16 3.2.2 The dependency paradigm..............................................................................................................................................16 3.2.3 The alternative(or participatory) paradigm...........................................................................................................17 3.2.4 Communication for social change perspective.....................................................................................................18

3.3 Conceptual approaches ................................................................................................................................................................18 3.3.1 Information and Education Approach......................................................................................................................18 3.3.2 Information, Education and Communication........................................................................................................19 3.3.3 Communication for Behaviour Change.....................................................................................................................19 3.3.4 Context-Based Approach.................................................................................................................................................19 3.3.5 Communication for Social Change..............................................................................................................................19 3.4 Communication planning models .......................................................................................................................................... 20 3.4.1 P Process................................................................................................................................................................................. 20 3.4.2 The COMBI Approach......................................................................................................................................................... 22 3.4.3 Integrated Model of Communication for Social Change.................................................................................. 23 3.4.4 The Social and Behaviour Change Communication(SBCC) Model............................................................. 25 CHAPTER 4: COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES 4.1 Social marketing ............................................................................................................................................................................. 30 4.1.1 The 5 P's of social marketing..........................................................................................................................................31 4.2 Entertainment-education ........................................................................................................................................................... 33 4.2.1 Three generations of entertainment-education.................................................................................................. 33 4.2.2 Entertainment-education formats.............................................................................................................................. 34 4.2.3 Example.................................................................................................................................................................................... 36 4.3 Social mobilisation .........................................................................................................................................................................37 4.3.1 Formulate a vision...............................................................................................................................................................37 4.3.2 Define the particpants' and partners' field of action.........................................................................................37 4.3.4 Collective action.................................................................................................................................................................. 38 4.4 Media advocacy ............................................................................................................................................................................... 38 4.4.1 Participation........................................................................................................................................................................... 38 4.4.2 Considerations...................................................................................................................................................................... 39 4.4.3 Communication with the media.................................................................................................................................. 39 4.4.4 Communication with different stakeholders.........................................................................................................40 4.4.5 Communication with the opposition.........................................................................................................................40 4.5 Civic journalism ................................................................................................................................................................................40 4.6 Mechanisms for building consensus and decisions ......................................................................................................41 4.7 Digital media ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 42 4.8 Community communication and citizen media .............................................................................................................. 43 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH 5.1 Reference framework for research ....................................................................................................................................... 45 5.2 Formative research ........................................................................................................................................................................48 Step 1: Identifying information needs................................................................................................................................... 49 Step 2: Collecting existing information and identifying information gaps......................................................... 49 Step 3: Elaborating a methodological design.................................................................................................................... 49 Step 4: Data collection.................................................................................................................................................................. 50 Step 5: Data analysis and reporting.........................................................................................................................................51 Step 6: Use of the research report...........................................................................................................................................51

5.3 Monitoring .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 52 5.4 Evaluation ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 53 5.4.1 Process evaluation.............................................................................................................................................................. 55 5.4.2 Results evaluation.............................................................................................................................................................. 55 5.4.3 Impact evaluation............................................................................................................................................................... 55 5.4.4 Evaluation – step-by-step............................................................................................................................................... 55 5.5 Systematisation of communication programmes ..........................................................................................................57 5.6 Uses of research in monitoring and evaluation ............................................................................................................. 58 5.6.1 Methods................................................................................................................................................................................... 58 5.6.2 Techniques led by researchers and participants................................................................................................60 TABLES Table 1: SWOT Analysis.....................................................................................................................................................................2 Table 2: Basic Guide to Create a Results Framework......................................................................................................48 Table 3: Example of Research Design..................................................................................................................................... 50 Table 4: Example of Qualitative and Quantitative Techniques for Monitoring Indicators.......................... 53 Table 5: Differences between Process, Results and Impact Evaluation................................................................ 54 Table 6: Type of Studies for Evaluations Based on Quantitative Methods......................................................... 56 Table 7: Type of Studies for Evaluations Based on Qualitative Methods............................................................. 56 FIGURES Figure 1: Evolution of Communication Approaches.........................................................................................................19 Figure 2: The P Process.................................................................................................................................................................. 20 Figure 3: 15 Steps of COMBI Planning.................................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 4: Integrated Model of Communication for Social Change........................................................................... 23 Figure 5: Steps of the SBCC Planning Process.................................................................................................................. 26 Figure 6: Three Key Strategies of SBCC................................................................................................................................. 26 Figure 7: SBCC Analysis Model and Variables......................................................................................................................27 Figure 8: Revela2 Validation Process...................................................................................................................................... 36 Figure 9: Theory of Change Example...................................................................................................................................... 46 Figure 10: Soul City’s Theory of Social and Behaviour Change.................................................................................. 46 Figure 11: UNICEF C4D Pathways to Change for Ending Child Marriage...................................................................47 Figure 12: Steps in the Systematisation of Communication Programmes............................................................57

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 1: Phuza Wise Campaign(South Africa)...................................................................................................... 63 CASE STUDY 2: Soul City(South Africa).................................................................................................................................. 64 CASE STUDY 3: Nollywood(Nigeria)......................................................................................................................................... 65 CASE STUDY 4: Sixth Sense(Nicaragua)................................................................................................................................66 CASE STUDY 5: Femina HIP(Tanzania)....................................................................................................................................67 CASE STUDY 6: Minga Perú(Peru).............................................................................................................................................68 CASE STUDY 7: MTV Staying Alive Ignite Campaign......................................................................................................... 69 CASE STUDY 8: Scenarios from the Sahel(West Africa)................................................................................................. 71 CASE STUDY 9: Primero mi primaria...para triunfar(First my primary school…to succeed) (Colombia)............................................................................................................................................................72 CASE STUDY 10: Twaweza(Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda)..............................................................................................74 CASE STUDY 11: Campaign for smoke-free kids(Mexico)...............................................................................................75 CASE STUDY 12: Niambie(TELL ME)(Tanzania)..................................................................................................................76 CASE STUDY 13: Search for Common Ground(South Sudan)......................................................................................77 CASE STUDY 14: Ebola Control in Liberia................................................................................................................................78 CASE STUDY 15: Bush Radio(South Africa)..........................................................................................................................80 CASE STUDY 16: Katha Mitho Sarangiko(Sweet Stories of the Sarangi)(Nepal)................................................81 CASE STUDY 17: East Los High – Social Media in Edutainment-interventions(USA)....................................... 82

FOREWORD Access to Information vis-à-vis Communication for Social Change Strategies Access to basic and relevant information is a fundamental citizen’s right and a vital component for sustainable human development, as it facilitates informed choices and decision-making processes. For example, some areas of the African continent are still losing lives and great human capital to preventable or treatable diseases such as cholera, malaria, tuberculosis, AIDS-related illness and others. Similarly, very often people’s daily activities and behaviours – in many cases related to lack of awareness or access to relevant information that leads to environmentally sensitive practices and behaviours – may have a devastating impact on the environment and climate change. Information is power. And by being empowered with information, citizens are able to obtain tools to support actions of self-determination, self-development and self-achievement. The good news is that over the past several years, many governments in Africa have opened up information in their custody to facilitate their citizens’ access to information. Unfortunately, some governments continue to withhold information in their possession, fearing that the more informed their citizens are, the more likely it is that they could lose their mandates and grip on power. In some parts of Africa, elections still trigger political crises and violence because critical information is not made available to the public, especially voters, at the right time and in a transparent manner. In many cases, citizens are not granted the right to access the information they need to make informed decisions on relevant aspects of their lives. Similarly, many government and private organisations in charge of the provision of basic services such as water, electricity, food, housing, health and education are not well equipped with the required communication tools to provide adequate, relevant and timely information to the best satisfaction and interest of their citizens and other beneficiaries. Timely, relevant and useful information is instrumental for social progress, social change and development. This requires putting appropriate communication frameworks and tools in place. Section IV of the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa 1 states that,“Public bodies hold information not for themselves but as custodians of the public good and everyone has a right to access this information.” By adopting the Declaration of Principles in 2002, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights has made it possible for African citizens to demand and enjoy access to information to achieve their selfdevelopment and social change. The same section of the Declaration of Principles states that,“Public bodies shall be required, even in the absence of a request, to actively publish important information of significant public interests.” Making progress on this agenda requires a broad range of communications capacities, tools and frameworks that can support governments and CSOs in implementing more inclusive and participatory communication strategies for sustainable change. Communication approaches adopted in the operations of an organisation or programme are fundamental and instrumental in fostering positive behaviour and social changes. In that sense, communication strategies should be based on human interactions and on the cultural context in which they take place, in order to develop messages and implement communication activities relevant to citizens and members of the public. Developing the best approaches for interactions and messages demands an adequate understanding of the community and their cultural foundations. Designing the appropriate strategies implies that there is sufficient information and understanding about the socio-cultural dimensions of the relevant development issues and members of the population that should act as key co-participants of the strategy, and that these groups not only have access to the relevant information, but also a supporting environment to engage in the expected behavioural and social changes towards development. 1 African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights(2002). Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression. Banjul, The Gambia. Retrieved June 04, 2019, from http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/achpr/expressionfreedomdec.html. ii

The campaign of the African Platform on Access to Information(APAI) was launched in 2009 to push for the adoption and implementation of national access to information legislation, allowing all citizens to easily access all information held by public bodies, as a public good. Nearly a decade later, more than half of African countries still have no access to information legislation. In some countries, the national campaigns started earlier and lasted more than ten years for a law to see the light of the day. In other countries where a law was adopted, implementation has remained challenged by misunderstandings in relation to the benefits or impacts for development and social change. The campaign for access to information in Africa also needs appropriate communication strategies to achieve the objective of having the 55 countries equipped with legislation and frameworks that empower their citizens to enjoy access to information for social change and development, and for“the Africa we want”. This Manual will aid the facilitation of access to information campaign strategies and fast track their impacts and processes. Gabriel Baglo General Secretary The Federation of African Journalists iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Editorial Coordinator: Sara-Nathalie Brombart, Director, fesmedia Africa, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) Editorial Assistant: Jennifer Ido, Consultant Principal Investigators: Rafael Obregón Gálvez, United Nations Children’s Fund(UNICEF), New York, USA Jair Vega Casanova, Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla, Colombia Research Team: Claudia Nieto Sánchez, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium George W. Gathigi, University of Nairobi, Kenya Lina Vega Estarita and Elizabeth Vargas Rosero, Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla, Colombia Validation of the methodology was supported through representation from the following organisations in Colombia: Fundación Cultural La Sombra del Matarraton • Vokaribe • Red Juvenil SurOccidente • CEDERHNOS • LaChachara.co • Corporaciòn La Plena • La Plena • UniNorte • Paz a la calle/Mujeres con poder • Transgarte • Ninguna • Red departamental de mujeres jóvenes • Fundación Nuevas Letras • Mesa LGBTI de Barranquilla y el Atlántico Validation of the methodology in Africa was supported by the following people and organisations in the region: Austin Kayanda: Media Institute of Southern Africa, MISA (Zambia)• Eugene Nforngwa (Cameroon)• Felix Reimer: German Corporation for International Cooperation, GIZ (Botswana)• Gabriel Baglo: Federation of African Journalists (Togo)• Gerard Guedegbe: Afrobarometer Media Trainer (Benin)• Hyde Haguta: Radio Phoenix (Zambia)• Ibrahima Sane, Dr (Senegal)• Isaias Carlos Fuel: Media Institute of Southern Africa, MISA (Mozambique)• Jamina Abrahams-Smith: Institute for the Advancement of Journalism (South Africa) • Jonathon Rees: Proof Communication (South Africa)• Natasha Phatela: Grow Consulting (Namibia)• Paula Fray: Frayintermedia (South Africa)• Raoto Andriamanambe: Youth Leadership Development Programme (Madagascar)• Stella Kihara: African Center for Development Communication (Kenya)• Tabani Moyo: Media Institute of Southern Africa, MISA (Zimbabwe)• Tom Lansner: Social Accountability Media Initiative, Aga Khan University Graduate School of Media and Communications (USA)• Zenzele Ndebele: Centre for Innovation and Technology (Zimbabwe) Sources used: Sources used for this Manual are listed in the footnotes. Special mention is made to the C-Modules developed by the Communication for Change project(C-Change): C-Change.(2012). C-Modules: A Learning Package for Social and Behavior Change Communication . Washington, DC: C-Change/FHI 360. The C-Modules can be freely accessed at: https://www.c-changeprogram.org/focus-areas/capacity-strengthening/sbcc-modules#0. iv

AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES Jair Vega Casanova Manuel Jair Vega Casanova is Professor of Communication in the Department of Social Communication, and a member of PBX: Communication, Culture and Social Change Research Group at Universidad del Norte in Barranquilla, Colombia. He is a Sociologist from Universidad Simón Bolívar, Barranquilla, Colombia; holds a Master’s Degree in Political – Economic Studies; and is a PhD candidate in Communication at Universidad del Norte. His research interests include communication for social and behavioural change; participatory and citizen communication; health communication; studies of gender, diversity and citizenship; as well as the generation of evidence for the design, monitoring and evaluation of communication strategies for social change, sexual and reproductive human rights; and communication and citizenship, with a focus on child and youth populations. He has been a consultant for various international agencies and projects, including C-CHANGE-FHI 360, the Pan American Health Organization, UNICEF, UNDP, UNFPA, Population Communication International, Bernard van Leer Foundation, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Checchi and Company Consulting Colombia, the Communication for Social Change Consortium, and the Communication Initiative. He has been a guest lecturer at several universities in Colombia and internationally. He was a member of the editorial board and a guest editor for the following journals: Investigación& Desarrollo, and Chasqui – Revista Latinoamericana de Comunicación Folios. Prior to joining Universidad del Norte, he worked for five years with Fundación Social as the coordinator of social development programmes. He has published numerous papers, book chapters and journal articles. His publications can be found at http://uninorte. academia.edu/JairVega and https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jair_Vega. Rafael Obregón Gálvez Rafael Obregón Gálvez is Chief of the Communication for Development Section, Programme Division, United Nations Children’s Fund(UNICEF), New York. Prior to joining UNICEF, he was an Associate Professor in the School of Media Arts& Studies and Director of the Communication and Development Studies Programme, Center for International Studies, at Ohio University; and an Associate Professor at the Department of Social Communication at Colombia’s Universidad del Norte, where he continues to engage as a visiting lecturer. He has also served as Regional Communication Advisor for Maternal and Child Health, Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization. He has extensive teaching, research and professional experience in development and health communication, and in international development in Latin America, Asia and Africa. He is a member of the review board of several journals, including the Journal of Health Communication, and has served as a guest reviewer for Social Science Medicine, BioMed Central, and the Health Policy Journal. He has served as an advisor to the International Health Regulations Emergency Committee, World Health Organization; he is a member of several international associations, including the International Communication Association and the International Association for Mass Communication Research; and he has published several books, peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters and technical reports. His most recent books include The Handbook of Development Communication and Social Change (2014), and The Handbook of Global Health Communication(2012), Wiley Publishers. He earned a doctorate in Mass Communication at Pennsylvania State University; an M.A. in International Affairs at Ohio University; and a B.A. in Social Communication and Journalism at Universidad Autonoma, Colombia. v

OVERVIEW OF THE MANUAL This Manual aims to contribute to the design and implementation of communication strategies in organisations, or campaigns, seeking to reach greater levels of socio-political visibility and impact in local, regional and national contexts. Voices with Purpose – A Manual on Communication Strategies for Development and Social Change contains three complementary modules, each designed with a specific purpose: 1. Conceptual Module The purpose of this module is to expand and ground your learning process with rich theoretical content and a wealth of relevant examples. It sets out the conceptual and theoretical frameworks that will facilitate a deeper understanding of the processes involved in designing, implementing and evaluating a communication strategy. Case studies that illustrate the application of communication for development and social change principles, concepts, theories, approaches, research, monitoring and evaluation issues have been included in the Annexes Section. 2. Participant’s Module The purpose of this module is to steer you through the process of applying your acquired knowledge and skills to begin structuring the core components of your communication strategy. It sets out the practical methodological elements that organisations, or campaigns, can use to implement each of the steps necessary in formulating, implementing and evaluating a communication strategy for development and social change. 3. Facilitator’s Module The purpose of this module is to support individuals in charge of facilitating workshops for organisations, or campaigns, engaged in the design and implementation of a communication strategy for development and social change. It provides a series of practical recommendations to be considered by facilitators who actively direct the learning process in group settings. vi

OVERVIEW: CONCEPTUAL MODULE This module provides key conceptual and theoretical elements for participants to gain a deeper understanding of the underlying processes and methodologies that guide the design, implementation and evaluation of a communication strategy. There are many definitions and approaches that vary depending upon the type of communication approach, and the specific development and social change issues being addressed. While this is not meant to be an academic text and is purposefully written in a way that is accessible to multiple audiences, it does include relevant academic references for those readers interested in the rich communication for development literature. This module consists of five chapters each of which is structured into three blocks: a brief introduction to the topics covered in the chapter; an overview and evolution of key concepts; and questions to guide emerging discussions. These questions serve to facilitate further reflection by participants. Chapter One includes a general approach to strategic planning in social organisations. It is expected to help assist understanding of how a communication strategy must be formulated as an integral component of the policies and strategic focus areas of the organisation. Chapter Two briefly discusses key concepts and theoretical shifts around communication, culture, development and social change processes. As communication processes often entail a political perspective, these processes are linked with the goal of strengthening democracy and citizenship, as well as with the achievement of development objectives such as the Sustainable Development Goals and their corresponding targets. This chapter also discusses inclusive perspectives, particularly in relation to gender and human rights. Chapter Three includes a brief history of the evolution of conceptual approaches in the field of communication for development, many of which are derived from important transformations in development efforts over the last 70 years, as well as reformulations of the role played by communication in those processes. Chapters Three and Four introduce key communication models and strategies for social and behaviour change. These chapters emphasise conceptual elements and highlight specific methodological elements that are discussed in detail in the Participant’s Module. Finally, Chapter Five provides core concepts and definitions about designing, implementing and evaluating communication strategies for development and social change, including formative research, strategy design, and monitoring and evaluation. Specific guidance on how to implement each of these steps is provided in the Participant’s Module. vii

CHAPTER ONE CHAPTER 1 CURRENT SITUATION OF ORGANISATION What is a social organisation? Many authors have elaborated on the definition of social organisation. Some see it from a conventional point of view that identifies the term‘organisation’ with the term‘structure’; others see it as the organisation of activities to satisfy certain needs; and a final group, as highlighted below, blends these two concepts. Mancini, Martin and Bowen(2003) state that a social organisation describes the collection of values, norms, processes and behaviour patterns within a community that organise, facilitate and constrain the interactions among community members. 2 Social organisation is the process by which communities achieve their desired results for individuals and families, including the ability of individuals and families to demonstrate resiliency in the face of adversity and positive challenge. Social organisation includes networks of people, the exchanges and reciprocity that transpire in relationships, accepted standards and norms of social support, and social controls that regulate behaviour and interaction. 3 1.1 ORGANISATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS For any social organisation to be effective, the following characteristics need to be clearly defined: 1.1.1 Organisational aims and objectives This is a description of an organisation’s mandate, which often consists of: Purpose : The purpose is the situation that the organisation intends to improve, or the problem that it intends to solve. It is related to the impact that the social organisation aims to generate. The most important requirement for a purpose to make sense, and therefore to work, is basic: that it be necessary. As long as the purpose of a social organisation is to foster participation and engagement, communication is a key ingredient to achieve that purpose. It usually starts with,‘We believe…’ Vision : This is the difference the organisation intends to create in the lives of their target audience. It normally merges the mission of the organisation with the future that the members and stakeholders wish to see. It should motivate people to act and to take into consideration the type of social change they want to generate in society. A vision can be modified over time because of the achievement of some goals or the need to focus on new ones. Social organisations often include references to engagement, empowerment, participation, change and voice in their vision, which clearly position the role of communication. It usually starts with,‘We will…’ Mission Statement : This defines what the organisation intends to do, for whom the organisation is going to do it and what it intends to accomplish in its environment or in the social system in which it acts. Jonker and Meeham state,‘A mission statement is not just inspiring language for fundraising materials and the‘About Us’ section of a Web site.’ 4 When organisations achieve a well-stated mission, they can have more effective results, even with few resources, especially when their members all 2 Mancini, J. A., Bowen, G. L.,& Martin, J. A.(2003). Community capacity. In T. P. Gullotta& M. Bloom(Ed.), Encyclopedia of primary prevention and health promotion,(pp. 319–330). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.(p.319). 3 Mancini, J. A., Bowen, G. L.,& Martin, J. A.(2005). Community social organization: A conceptual linchpin in examining families in the context of communities. Family Relations: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 54(5), pp. 570-582.(p.572). 4 Jonker, K.,& Meehan, B.(2008). Curbing Mission Creep. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 6(1), 60–65. Retrieved June 04, 2019, from https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/faculty-research/publications/curbing-mission-creep. 1

CHAPTER ONE ‘breathe and live the mission statement.’ 5 It is also a useful assessment tool when evaluating how a new proposal fits with an organisation. The mission statement might also provide ideas about the roles that communication can play in external and internal relationships. It usually starts with,‘Be the most…’ 1.1.2 Strategic plan A strategic plan helps an organisation set priorities, allocate resources and ensure that everyone is working towards common goals and objectives. Creating a strategic plan involves the process of analysis, definitions and calls to action carried out within the organisation, generally by managers and co-ordination teams. This planning process should include all personnel of the organisation and, as far as possible, involve the target audience and the organisation’s most important allies. A strategic plan is generally seen as a document that sets out the goals and objectives of the organisation, along with the guidelines on how to achieve them. However, it is beneficial to rather see it as a process of reflection and analysis to make decisions that will create coherence between the organisations aims and objectives, and its daily actions. Strategic plans are a forward-looking perspective rather than a short-term goal, and are generally formulated for a period of three to five years. Communication should be fully integrated into an organisation’s strategic plan as opposed to being a separate component, as this often leads to ad hoc, short-lived strategies that do not add sufficient value to the organisation’s work and weaken its overall impact. 1.1.3 Measures Measures are specific outcome-focused activities and actions which bring about the change that an organisation wishes to see. They are things that one can observe which indicate progress. 1.2 SWOT ANALYSIS A SWOT analysis helps to identify the positive, negative, internal and external factors affecting an organisation and assists with strategic planning and decision-making. A SWOT analysis can be used to: • • explore possibilities for new strategies or solutions to problems; • • make decisions about the best path for your strategy; • • determine where change is possible; and • • adjust and refine plans. Table 1: SWOT Analysis Helpful Harmful Strengths Weaknesses External Internal Opportunities Threats 5 Jonker, K.,& Meehan, B.(2008). Op. cit., p. 65. 2

CHAPTER TWO CHAPTER 2 CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS Communication for development and social change strategies do not take place in a vacuum. They are immersed in social, cultural and political dynamics that form part of any given society or community. Therefore, when designing such a strategy, it is important to examine some foundational concepts in relation to the interests held at both an individual and organisational level. 2.1 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT Designing communication strategies that seek to generate social change necessarily draw on a vision for the future of a particular society. Development is a concept regularly used to define that future. However, the concept of development has been used in multiple ways, depending on factors such as what should change, what is expected to be achieved through that change, and who is responsible for its definition and achievement. Development has been a heavily debated concept in the social sciences. Its definitions have evolved from those focused on economic and social variables related to poverty, the index of unsatisfied basic needs and the dynamics of technological transfer; to definitions with a broader emphasis on cultural, political and environmental processes interested in elements such as participation, accountability, ethics and inclusion. The concept of development has moved away from the idea that it is caused by external actors, to approaches which understand the importance of communities being the main actors in the definition of their own development and change. Some authors suggest that the concept of development evolved through the following three paradigms: 6 2.1.1 The dominant paradigm The basis of this paradigm was that development could be achieved by modernisation(e.g. increased productivity, economic grown and industrialisation). Development, in this case, was directly related to economic growth and was measured by gross national product. This paradigm understood development as a directional, cumulative, predetermined and irreversible process, progressive and constitutive of the idea of Nation-State as promoted by Western capitalist countries. Therefore, indicators of progress and development included the construction of roads, infrastructure, technology, scientific advances, international investment and free trade agreements. Under the dominant paradigm, achieving development was primarily focused on bridging the gap between traditional and modern societies. Criticism of this paradigm emerged from so-called‘third-world’ countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa, stating that this paradigm promoted dominant models of change while ignoring local perspectives, and that economic growth and modernisation resulted in greater inequality. The dominant paradigm was also considered ethnocentric in nature, as it regarded non-Western norms, values, religion and culture as barriers to development. 6 Waisbord, S.(2001). Family tree of theories, methodologies and strategies in development communication. Rockefeller Foundation. 3

CHAPTER TWO 2.1.2 The dependency paradigm Criticisms of the dominant paradigm led to the origin of the dependency paradigm, in which exploitation of the‘third-world’ countries by the‘first-world’ began to be questioned. 7 Under the argument that colonising dynamics created a conditioning situation in which the economies of some countries depended on the development and expansion of others, the idea of liberation from the domination of powerful countries became popular during the 1960s and 1970s. In Latin America, authors such as the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire argued that individuals should act against the oppression of external models and become aware of the pathways to change in their own contexts. 8 Freire believed that people could transform their own environment and communicate their own ideas; and should therefore stop being treated as objects to favour a dominant economy and instead demand to be treated as subjects with consciousness and capacity to reflect on their own acts. This paradigm was criticised for its emphasis on external factors as causes of underdevelopment and for maintaining economic elements at the core of the discussion about progress. It was also questioned for not addressing the impact of external domination on poverty, and for not proposing concrete tools to achieve new visions of development. 2.1.3 The alternative paradigm Finally, the alternative paradigm emerged with a pluralistic perspective based on the need to consider new paths to change. 9 According to development communication specialist Alfonso Gumucio, when one acknowledges that being a developed country is not only a matter of having more bridges, hospitals and roads but also of experiencing processes that link culture and cultural groups, it opens up spaces for new theoretical and methodological perspectives. 10 The emergence of feminist, environmentalist and civil rights movements, as well as Freire’s pedagogy of liberation as a transformative force, significantly expanded expectations about development. This concept was increasingly redefined as a‘participatory process of social change[designed] with the intention of generating social and material progress, including greater equity, freedom and other qualitative values, for the majority of the people, by means of a greater control of the environment by local communities.’ 11 By emphasising social dynamics over economic assets, this definition rejects a singular vision of development to build a more complex concept with multiple levels. In this sense, while a certain population group understands development as access to goods and services, others are interested in living in harmony with their natural environment or in being able to live their lifestyle and traditions under favourable conditions. The alternative paradigm has inspired new concepts closely linked to the idea of development, particularly as environmental issues have become a universal concern. Understood as a process connected to basic issues of equity, impartiality, social justice and better quality of life, 12 the term ‘sustainability’ is now common in international agreements and conventions. It was initially positioned by the strong growth of communication technologies at international levels, but it was really through the dynamics of globalisation that sustainability ended up being part of the United Nations agenda through the Millennium Development Goals in 2000, and the new Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. Sustainable development, therefore, can be defined around four areas: environmental, social, economic and cultural sustainability. 13 7 Servaes, J.(2000). Comunicación para el desarrollo: tres paradigmas dos modelos. Temas y Problemas de Comunicación ,8(10), 5–27. Retrieved April 06, 2019, from http://www.infoamerica.org/selecciones/articulo2.htm. 8 Gadotti, M.,& Torres, C. A.(2009). Paulo Freire: Education for Development. Development and Change, 40(6), pp. 1255–1267. 9 Rogers, E. M.(1976). Communication and development the passing of the dominant paradigm. Communication research, 3(2), pp. 213-240. 10 Gumucio, A.(2004). El cuarto mosquetero: la comunicación para el cambio social. Investigación& Desarrollo, 12(1), pp. 1-22. Universidad del Norte. 11 Rogers, E.(1989). Inquiry in Development Communication. In: Asante, M.K.; and Gudykunst, W.B.,(Eds.). Handbook of international and intercultural communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 67-86. 12 United Nations Development Programme.(2011). Human Development Report 2011. New York: UNDP- HDRO. 13 De Vincentiis, G.(2012). La evolución del concepto de desarrollo sostenible. Medio Ambiente& Derecho: Revista electrónica de derecho ambiental,(23). 4

CHAPTER TWO 2.1.4 Other perspectives Due to the inability of dominant development approaches to solve problems such as poverty, other perspectives have gained visibility in the last decades. Promoted by Andean countries such as Bolivia and Ecuador, the Buen Vivir(Good Living) concept is one of them. From the Buen Vivir perspective, development transcends materialistic‘first-world’ ideas; and instead includes conceptions about quality of life derived from indigenous visions, in which human beings are not assumed to be at the centre of the world and nature is acknowledged as the subject of rights. In addition, it promotes an intercultural encounter that fosters dialogue between different types of knowledge, including those that prioritise happiness and spiritual good living. 14 Srinivas Roj Melkote identified several influential paradigms in the so-called‘third world’ countries that have contributed to contemporary ideas about development, including those permeated with theological elements such as liberation theology in Latin America, and those inspired by development ideas proposed by Eastern religious perspectives such as Judaism, Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism. 15 These perspectives suggest the need of liberation from socially and psychologically oppressive conditions, through a variety of spiritual practices in combination with political action. In summary, the concept of development has gone through significant changes, moving away from being defined by increasing gross domestic product, industrialisation and technological advances. 16 Issues such as freedom and plurality of local ownership are now part of discussions in the field, as development is considered a generator of liberation and, therefore, with more transcendental purposes than mere economic gains. 2.2 CONCEPT OF CHANGE The concept of change has been studied in sociology as an inherent aspect of society. It has been compared with a living organism subject to what some authors have called‘social evolutionism’. 17 According to this metaphor, individuals are cells and institutions are organs; their joint growth represents the evolution of societies. This perspective supports statements such as:‘Life is there as long as it is lived. Society is there as long as it is changing.’ 18 Just as the concept of development was modified through definitions used in the various paradigms, the concept of change has also undergone transformations. Change was initially seen as a unilineal, omnipresent process that could be fully studied under a pre-established trajectory. This approach was questioned because it overlooked variables and processes that influenced societies and their dynamics of change. As a response, change was then defined as a product of multiple variables and not necessarily as a linear process. Thus, it was seen as a product of the diversity present in any given society, as much as the result of a variety of independent, parallel, transversal and non-uniform processes plagued by crises and upheavals. More recent definitions conceptualise social change as alterations occurring in social structures(e.g. norms, values, cultural products or symbols) or in the patterns of action of a particular society. Elements that affect the direction and range of this change(such as geography, population and ecological factors, and technology) often disrupt social activities and relationships, communication technologies and innovations, and values and beliefs found at the core of contexts, doctrines and ideologies. 19 14 Gudynas, E.(2011). Buen vivir: Germinando alternativas al desarrollo. America Latina en Movimiento. ALAI, 462, pp. 1-20. 15 Melkote, S. R.,& Steeves, H. L.(2015). Communication for development: Theory and practice for empowerment and social justice(3 rd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. 16 Sen, A.(2000). El desarrollo como libertad. Gaceta Ecológica,(55), pp. 14-20. 17 Sztompka, P.(1993). The sociology of social change. Oxford: Blackwell. 18 Sztompka, P.(2000). The Ambivalence of Social Change Triumph or Trauma? Polish Sociological Review, pp. 275–290. Retrieved April 06, 2019, from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb7d/bd2e50abe4842162df85fa7e56be493f12a5.pdf. 19 Ignou.(2015). ESO11-The Study of Society. India: Neeraj Publications. 5

CHAPTER TWO 2.2.1 Individual change approach The concept of change was also influenced by psychological theories that looked at the individual as a main agent of change. However, in the view of many, this neglected cultural and contextual factors affecting individual behavioural change. Another consideration is that these theories have greater predictability in‘first-world’ contexts where they are typically empirically tested, than‘third-world’ contexts where families and communities might have greater influence on ideas such as health and well-being, as well as norms and behaviours associated with them. 20 2.2.2 Social change approach A more overarching perspective of change involving cultural, social and political aspects was deemed necessary, and the idea of social change developed with this in mind. The social change approach addresses the methodological limitations of perspectives focused primarily on individual behavioural change, particularly their lack of attention to social, physical and environmental factors with impact on individual roles and expectations, and, hence, behaviours. 21 As discussed, there are several differences between the individual and social change perspectives. However, an ideal change process results from a social change that involves essential individual changes. The interaction between the two should lead to a self-sustaining improvement of the social outcomes being worked towards, so one cannot think of one without the other. 22 2.2.3 Communication for social change The approach known as‘communication for social change’ is defined as a process of public and private dialogue through which individuals and communities can define who they are, what they want, and how they want to achieve it. This definition came about due to a 1997 conference(and follow-up meetings in 1998 and 1999), sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation, and tasked with examining the connections between social change and communication, and exploring the possibilities of new communication strategies for social change. The definition proposed a major transformation on the emphasis of communication for development initiatives: from predefined and unidirectional communication strategies aimed at driving individual behaviour change, to strategies that paid equal or greater attention to social and structural changes led by communities themselves. According to the Rockefeller Foundation’s perspective, communication efforts had been operating under those assumptions even before this movement, particularly aiming: • • to inform and persuade individuals to adopt certain individual behaviours; • • to position organisations working in the development field in order to increase their credibility and their access to funding; and • • in some cases, to facilitate communities’ consultation in certain phases of the implementation process. 23 Through several meetings among development experts, communication professionals, journalists and other actors in the field, new uses of communication have been discussed, including‘enabling people and societies to set their own agendas in relation to political, economic and social development and (…) enabling, in particular, the voices of the economically and politically marginalised to be amplified and channelled to the mainstream public and political debate’. 24 20 Airhihenbuwa, C.O.& Obregón R.(2000). A critical assessment of theories/models used in health communication for HIV/AIDS. Journal of health communication, 5(sup1), pp. 5-15. 21 Airhihenbuwa, C., Makinwa, B.& Obregón, R.(2000). Toward a new communications framework for HIV/AIDS. Journal of Health Communications, 5(sup1), pp. 101-111. 22 Figueroa, M. E., Kincaid, D. L., Rani, M.& Lewis, G.(2002). Communication for social change: an integrated model for measuring the process and its outcomes. Working Paper Series No. 1, New York: The Rockefeller Foundation. 23 Grey-Felder, D.& Deane, J.(1999). Communication for social change: A position paper and conference report. New York: Rockefeller Foundation. 6 24 Grey-Felder(1999) Op. cit. p.6

CHAPTER TWO 2.3 CITIZENSHIP AND DEMOCRACY The concept of democracy and citizenship are intimately linked to the design of a communication strategy. For a democracy to exist, an active citizen must exist. Both terms refer to the ideal that it is possible to build a better society than the existing one, which in turn implies thinking about relationships of cooperation and common well-being. There is an unbreakable link between citizenship and the common good. Beyond any difference, there is a core of common interests that should guide the free will of any social group or subject in such a way that the collective interest prevails over the individual. This entails considering the need to strengthen the social fabric of society, and provides the opportunity to harmonise and consolidate a model of democratic participation as a non-negotiable condition for citizenship. 2.3.1 Citizenship The concept of citizenship can be understood as the capacity, individual or collective, to actively and responsibly participate in society. Social rights and equality are fundamental components of citizenship, through which society has a better chance to evolve into a democratic system. 25 In that context, communication serves as a critical resource for individuals, and more broadly for societies, to exercise active citizenship. Citizenship can be defined from two different approaches. On the one hand, according to the NationState approach, citizenship is a fundamental aspect of political rights expressed as a set of rights and obligations, as well as public and private guarantees enjoyed by a group of the population holding the status of citizens. This status grants them opportunities and prerogatives in relation to the exercise of political power and control of public duties. On the other hand, according to the social process approach: We assign a more secular meaning to the idea of citizenship, far from any cult of political collective, any cult of nation, people or republic. Being a citizen means feeling responsible for the proper functioning of institutions that respect people’s rights and facilitate the representation of their ideas and interests. Citizenship implies an ongoing concern for public matters and for larger continuity of social demands and long-term decisions taken by the State. 26 New perspectives on citizenship Given that terms such as active participation, citizen participation and corporate citizenship have become common in academic and scholarly literature, John Gaventa 27 warns of a latent danger of citizenship being defined according to very narrow interests. Gaventa claims that contemporary theories of citizenship attempt to find ways to blend a liberal emphasis – focused on individual rights, equity and due process – with a communal emphasis. Gaventa suggests uniting the republican civic approach(which places more emphasis on people’s political identities as active citizens, apart from their identities in localised communities) to include elements such as deliberation processes, collective action and accountability, thereby providing citizens with greater opportunities to claim their rights and hold duty bearers accountable. It is important to understand the close relationship that exists between citizenship and rights, and how these two terms are affected by different social, political and cultural contexts. Both terms are subject to power relations, social hierarchies and competitive identities determining the inclusion 25 Rodríguez Lestegás, F.(coord.),(2008). Identidad y ciudadanía. Reflexiones sobre la construcción de identidades. Barcelona: Editorial Horsori y Universidad Santiago de Compostela. 26 Touraine, A.(1998), El concepto de desarrollo“revisited”, in E. Sader(ed.), Democracia sin exclusiones ni. Nueva Sociedad, Caracas: CLECSO-UNESCO. 27 Gaventa, J.(2002). Introduction: Exploring Citizenship, Participation and Accountability. Retrieved April 06, 2019, from Institute of 7 Development Studies: https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/gaventa332.pdf.

CHAPTER TWO of some voices and the exclusion of others in decision-making processes. Consequently, Gaventa questions whether concepts of citizenship developed in the West can actually be applied in postcolonial territories with the same meaning, efficacy and results. Gaventa’s analysis highlights the importance of worldwide struggles to articulate and demand citizenship beyond legal mechanisms in people’s everyday lives. In addition, it emphasises that for rights to be realised, there must be the willingness to demand them and take action. Gaventa and others thus argue that voice – facilitated through communication processes – is critical to citizen engagement and participation. 2.3.2 Democracy Democracy can be defined as a political space created to demand social rights and expand citizenship. Any democracy must be founded on the acknowledgment of fundamental human and social rights for all; this ensures representation of all existing minorities, as well as environments where arguments are debated with equality, under a perspective of dialogue and with the purpose of reaching rational and peaceful agreements. If an indicator of the democratic development of a country was the level of decentralisation of mass media: it could be argued that a country is more democratic if it shows high degrees of decentralisation, heterogenisation, pluralism and participation in the media. 28 There is a direct relationship between democracy and communication. As Toro and Rodriguez explain, 29 democracy is not natural but rather constructed by human beings; therefore, it needs to be taught and learned. Laws and regulations must be built by the people who will live, follow and protect them; hence, there is no ideal model that can be copied or imitated. Democracy must have guiding principles such as human rights and dignity. Finally, the process of democracy-building must be a public matter, because democracy as a practice is by everyone, for everyone. 2.4 COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIAL PROCESS Understanding, defining and using communication is a constant human process, whether as a natural relational dynamic, as an object of study in social sciences, or as a way of implementing communication processes within a defined time and space. In Estrategias de Comunicación para el Cambio Social 30 (Communication Strategies for Social Change), the authors highlighted certain key elements to understand communication as a human process: Communication is a fundamental social process 31 Communication is a basic element of human interactions and the foundation of social and cultural construction. Arguably, any individual or collective action can be the result of communication processes among human beings. For example, if communities consider themselves as having no right to participate in decisions about public matters relevant to them, it could be argued that this is the product of restrictive communication processes. It is therefore likely that these communities have historically been marginalised from decision-making processes, misled to believe that they are not competent or that they must be represented by others. These processes can occur to such an extent that people might not think of themselves as part of, or having a voice, in their society. In other words, not participating is a natural behaviour for them. 28 El papel de la comunicación en el desarrollo de la democracia. Investigación y desarrollo: revista del Centro de Investigaciones en Desarrollo Humano, 10(2), pp. 128–145. Retrieved June 04, 2019, from https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/citart?info=link&codigo=620126&orden=0. 29 Toro, J. B.& Rodríguez, M.C.(2001). La comunicación y la movilización social en la construcción de bienes públicos.(1a. ed.). Bogota: Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo(BID). 30 Rodríguez, C., Obregón, R.& Vega, J.(2002). Estrategias de Comunicación para el Cambio Social. Quito: Media Project of Latin America, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. pp. 8-10. 31 There are several positions in this regard: Schramm, W.(1963). The science of human communication: New directions and new findings in communication research. New York, NY: Basic Books; Pearce, W.B.(1994). Interpersonal communication: Making social worlds. New York: 8 HarperCollins.

CHAPTER TWO Communication implies processes and structures of meaning-making 32 Communication goes beyond the mere act of transmitting a message. Understanding the actual practice of communication requires thinking in terms of sense and meaning transmitted or formed among human beings. As an example, participation can be defined as the power and capacity to make informed decisions. In the case of messianic and autocratic forms of government, political activity is associated with politicians and not with individual or collective citizens; therefore, phenomena such as patronage and corruption could be considered inherent dynamics of political activity. This scenario quite naturally leads to exclusion, self-exclusion and passivity. In order for behaviours to change, meanings need to change Human behaviours follow processes of communication that progressively form social and cultural references that support these behaviours; that is, all behaviours are anchored in meanings. 33 For this reason, attempting to transform these behaviours also demands a transformation of the elements of individual and collective meaning which support them. This is possible when people take part in very intense participatory dynamics that encourage them to transform cultural codes and reshape their worldviews in relation to power, gender roles, etc. These intense participatory dynamics are processes of awareness-raising and empowerment designed to encourage both individual and collective participation. From this perspective, rather than questioning existing behaviours or proposing new routes of action, any message aimed at generating social change must try to negotiate and challenge the cultural meanings and codes supporting such behaviours, in a way that new ones may arise from a new web of meanings. Communication is always a dynamic located in a particular space and time Communication does not occur in a vacuum. Actions of everyday life are the result of communication processes enacted by specific people or actors, interpersonally, within organisational schemes, or through the media. This fact implies the possibility of learning from similar communication processes or projects, always considering that what is achieved in a particular context – be it a neighbourhood, a region or a country – cannot be identically applied somewhere else due to cultural, historical, political or environmental factors coming into play. These contextual elements will determine not only the specific messages to be circulated, but also the media used to do so and the different types of interaction between audiences and messages. Communication occurs through specific media and always uses a particular vehicle Not all media can be used for the same purposes. For example, if you want to distribute information, perhaps printed or audio-visual media formats are the most appropriate. However, if capacitybuilding or empowerment is required, training and experiential workshops and interactions that promote dialogue and interaction with an emphasis on interpersonal communication are perhaps more useful. Nowadays, when interaction among people who are physically distant is required, the option of using tools such as social media is readily available. In any case, it is important to consider the social and cultural context before deciding on specific media. For example, in a campaign that promotes empowerment in a context where there is a tradition of active participation, perhaps a simple invitation to participate is enough to involve local communities. However, if the same campaign is carried out in a context where a tradition of active participation does not exist and where it is not even possible to conceive of participation as a possibility, it would be necessary not only to communicate ideas about empowerment, but also to create circumstances in which this concept can be experienced and understood. 32 There is a long tradition of thought around meaning making in communication: Eco, U.(1973). La vida social como un sistema de signos, en Introducción al estructuralismo. pp. 89-110, Madrid: Alianza Editorial. 33 De Certeau, M.(1996). La invención de lo Cotidiano 1. Artes de Hacer. Mexico: Ibero-American University. 9

CHAPTER TWO 2.5 COMMUNICATION AND CULTURAL CHANGE A consideration in the field of communication for development and social change is that important foundations for human behaviour reside in culture. Understanding the role played by culture in processes of social change therefore becomes a necessary perspective. 2.5.1 The concept of culture Among the multiple meanings attributed to the concept of culture, two lines of thinking stand out. 34 The first one adopts a metaphor derived from agriculture and considers culture to be a process of cultivation of the human mind; the second one(subscribed to by the authors of this text) conceptualises culture as a system of symbols and meanings experienced in a particular way among those who share(construct) them and who, generally, constitute a community. Within the first line of thinking, it is possible to identify definitions of culture as a developed state of mind that characterises educated or cultivated people, depending on how familiar they are with and how knowledgeable they are about art, science, politics, music, literature, etc. These individuals may then be conferred higher status in society, while the same level of culture is perceived to be beyond the reach of ordinary people. One of the main criticisms of this definition is that it is exclusionary in nature. Firstly, because it defines the entire cultural universe according to a set of features belonging to a specific form of culture of limited access(i.e. music considered classical or art masterpieces); and secondly, because access to it determines the divide between ‘cultivated’ and‘uncultivated’ people. According to the second approach, culture permeates every space of individual life; culture is not a boundary that needs crossing, rather, culture surrounds us and, in most cases, defines who we are. Culture is a universe into which one is born and from which one cannot become detached. However, the relationship between human beings and culture does not fit the metaphor of the fish that lives in water, because the fish does not produce the water. Instead, this relationship can be more clearly illustrated by the relationship between the spider and the web; in this metaphor, it could be argued that culture is a web of meanings in which human beings live, but at the same time, since they live in it, they also weave it. In other words, they produce it. 35 Following this comparison it can be said that cultural meanings function as a web of meanings, and it is in this web where communication arises. For example, violent behaviour of a man towards a woman or an adult towards a child could possibly be explained by the cultural context in which they were born. In both cases, the use of violence by the perpetrators could be considered normal under the assumption that violence has been a predominant form of relationship since they were children, either to resolve conflicts with women or to educate children. However, it is also possible that these persons understand that violence is not the most appropriate way of addressing conflicts and that there may be other non-violent ways of relating or resolving conflict. From this position, they could promote changes that can eventually become other forms of culture. A few decades ago, abusive behaviour towards women or children was considered normal in many cultures. Today, this same behaviour is questioned, deemed unacceptable and, in some cases, punishable by law. Culture is a common foundation that supports all human actions. Many conceptions about actions and world-views that may foster the potential of a community to influence change are rooted in cultural norms and beliefs. Therefore, in order to modify world-views and actions in the expected direction of change, it is absolutely necessary to engage with and create an impact on the cultural foundations that have a negative influence on people, and to rely on the cultural dimensions that 34 Williams, R.(1982). Cultura: Sociología de la comunicación y del arte. Barcelona: Paidos.. 35 Geertz, C.(1992). La Interpretación De Las Culturas. Barcelona: Gedisa. 10

CHAPTER TWO are considered positive in nature. However, development interventions have traditionally focused on the efficacy of communication actions instead of cultural change. This has been evidenced by the use of massive strategies that guarantee wide coverage, regardless of the effects or reactions they produce. 2.5.2 Communication and culture Cultures can, over time, survive due to socio-cultural communication processes that allow their members to assimilate their values and transmit them. For this, they require spoken and written language, as well as other forms of communication. It is this same characteristic that enables culture to be formed and transformed through history; therefore, culture is dynamic and susceptible to change and modification. In this sense, one can understand how so many of the ideals of beauty, health, love, education, work, etc., have been gradually transformed to the extent that they are very different from those promoted 30 years ago. Multiple factors may have an influence on these changes that nowadays occur faster than ever before. Processes of cultural change, as well as the production of meaning, interaction, circulation and consumption, occur much faster because they are currently more media-based. Since it is through communication that individual and collective identities are constructed, there is no doubt about the close relationship that exists between culture, communication and the indirect influence of mass media. People learn from what they see in everyday life, but also from what comes from other people, other cultures and other media. For this reason, the idea of a pure culture or a culture based on historical identities has been gradually transformed to accept a more flexible definition with room for homogeneity and difference. From some perspectives, this means the possibility of eliminating the exclusionary and fundamentalist position under which culture is frequently analysed. Once again, communication processes are present in the transformation of identities and culture. 36 Communication can take two different approaches regarding culture. The first approach, known as culture-sensitive, is a look from the outside of a culture that seeks to adapt messages according to the most relevant cultural characteristics of a target audience. This approach states that communication strategies adopting this practice are more effective in comparison with those producing messages in which these particular characteristics are not considered. The second approach, known as‘culturecentred’, aims to offer alternative perspectives to the theory and practice of communication from within the culture. It can be argued that the culture-sensitive approach facilitates or contributes to various forms of hegemony, power and ideology, by assuming that the experience and control of dominant groups must reach other groups. The culture-centred approach questions this idea and, on the contrary, strives to give visibility to frequently neglected sectors. 37 It has already been mentioned that communication has been fundamental in development processes. As stated by Rosa María Alfaro:‘Communication is directly linked to development, not only as an auxiliary and methodological contribution to it, but also as the object of transformation of society and the subjects that are part of it.’ 38 and not only for its power to massively inform people and influence their behaviour, but also for its capacity to make the diversity of voices that are part of a particular context visible. Communication can facilitate participation processes in which communities themselves promote change and development. 36 Alfaro, R.(2015). Una comunicación para otro desarrollo, para el diálogo entre el norte y el sur(2nd ed.). Lima: CALANDRIA Social Communicators Association. 37 Dutta, M. J.(2007). Communicating About Culture and Health: Theorizing Culture-Centered and Cultural Sensitivity Approaches. Communication Theory, 17(3), pp. 304–328. Retrieved June 05, 2019, from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.14682885.2007.00297.x. 38 Alfaro, R.M.(1993). Una comunicación para otro desarrollo. Lima: Calandria. 11

CHAPTER THREE CHAPTER 3 COMMUNICATION MODELS, PARADIGMS AND PLANNING MODELS 3.1 COMMUNICATION MODELS Communication models are conceptual models used to explain the human communication process. Several models have been used in the field of communication for development. 39 They are classified according to their direction and purpose. In this manual, we focus on two main communication models: vertical and horizontal. 3.1.1 Vertical(or diffusion-based) communication models Vertical communication is when information or messages flow between or among hierarchically positioned persons and can involve both upward and downward communication flows. However, downward communication is usually more prevalent that upward communication. The information transmission model This vertical communication model is considered the most basic way of understanding communication as it illustrates a process occurring between someone who emits a message(called the sender); the message itself sent through a channel(visual, oral or written); and someone else who receives it (called the receiver). In order for this transmission of information to take place, the following have to be met: • • that the sender has some information that the receiver does not have, making the flow of information unidirectional; • • that the source and the receiver share the same channels and codes, so it can be presumed that the transmitted message will be understood in its entirety; and • • that given the first assumption, it is not necessary to know what the receiver has to say because it is the sender who has the knowledge, and this establishes a hierarchical relationship. This model had great influence over earlier conceptualisations of development that considered communication as an indicator of development. In this sense, it is assumed that communication plays functional roles in the process of change towards modernity, such as creating new aspirations, strengthening leadership growth toward social change, promoting citizen participation, and generating empathy among citizens(a basic feature of communication processes). 40 This perspective also associated development with urbanisation, literacy, income per capita and political participation, all of them in symbiotic relation with mass media growth. 41 Diffusion of innovations theory Diffusion is the process through which new ideas, technologies, products or processes are spread through communication among members of a social system via communication channels over time. 39 McQuail proposes the following communication models: transmission, ritual or expressive, publicity and reception in: McQuail, D.(2000). Introducción a la teoría de la comunicación de masas(3rd ed.). Barelona: Paidos. 40 Beltrán, L.R.(2005) La comunicación para el desarrollo en Latinoamérica: un recuento de medio siglo. Presented at III Pan American Meeting of Communication Sciences. Panel 3: Problems of communication for development in the context of the information society. Buenos Aires. p. 9. 41 Solé, C.(1998). Modernidad y modernización.(A.D. Smith, Ed.)(1 ed.). México D-F: Anthropos. 12

CHAPTER THREE This model often relies on the use of different media and channels of communication designed to guarantee information transmission and promote individual change. From this perspective, social change and development are the result of the sum of these individual transformations. This theory was introduced by Everett Rogers in 1962, and considers that an innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new in a social system and is introduced over a certain period of time. Development is generated when those innovations are disseminated and adopted by members of the said social system. It is precisely this process of communication of new ideas that is called diffusion. The aim of the communication process under this model is to support the adoption of innovations, which often implies a change of individuals’ behaviour as a result of the provision of information on the advantages of those innovations and the influence of opinion leaders. 42 In practice, this theory seeks to provoke processes of change by stimulating the so-called ‘innovators’ to become a model to follow for late adopters and those lagging behind. Following this, several behaviour change models such as the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Action have been applied to facilitate change in knowledge, attitudes and practices(KAP) under the linear assumption that information provides knowledge, knowledge changes attitudes, and as a consequence, behaviour change occurs. 43 The advertising model This model is similar to the transmission model in that it is usually unidirectional and vertical. The difference, however, is that it does not place emphasis on the content, message or information to be communicated, but rather on capturing the audience’s attention and stimulating certain psychosocial cues that may trigger a desired behaviour. Generally, advertising’s goal is to trigger consumer behaviour for economic gain, and it is pursued either through direct persuasion of audience members or through indirect influence over them. This model is also associated with the idea of generating fun and entertainment through the media, due to their capacity to stir emotions and arouse interest. Although in this case the audience may not be completely passive, their main function is not to convey sense or to create meanings, but to consume the product. This model has been used, for example, to position the image of celebrities, leaders or political agendas under the assumption that regardless of the content, it is better when people talk about something or someone. Another element that characterises the advertising model of communication is its transience: it only exists in the present because no permanence can be expected from a model that privileges forms, techniques, visibility and spectacle over transmission of meaning. 44 A perspective on hierarchical models Although there are studies that show positive effects of using hierarchical models of communication, 45 many scholars and practitioners argue that their scope fails in effecting social change when they assume that so-called underdevelopment is a problem mainly explained by information deficiencies, and that the structural causes of social problems are unimportant. Under these models, communication is particularly concerned with the dissemination of information. Even when the characteristics of the audiences are taken into consideration, a low emphasis on audiences’ points of views regarding their own issues can result in limited community involvement and low levels of efficacy. 46 42 Pérez, M.,& Terrón, M.(2004). La teoría de la difusión de la innovación y su aplicación al estudio de la adopción de recursos electrónicos por los investigadores de la Universidad de Extremadura. Revista Española de Documentación Científica, 27(3), 308–329. Retrieved June 04, 2019, from http://redc.revistas.csic.es/index.php/redc/article/view/155/209dDoc.csic.es:8080stas.csic.es/index. php/redc/article/ view/155/209. 43 Morris, N.(2003). A comparative analysis of the diffusion and participatory models in development Communication. Communication Theory, 13(2), pp. 225-248. 44 McQuail, D. Op. cit. 45 Morris, N. Op. cit. p. 232. 46 Gumucio-Dagron, A.& Tufte, T.(Eds.)(2006): Communication for social change anthology: historical and contemporary readings. New Jersey: Communication Social Change Consortium. 13

CHAPTER THREE 3.1.2 Horizontal(or participatory) communication models In horizontal or participatory communication models, the elaboration of meanings and, therefore, the interpretation of media messages are attributed to the receiver within their own culture and context. Media messages(considered polysemic in nature – a message can have multiple meanings) go through stages of transformation from their origin to their reception and interpretation in such a way that in their last stages, recipients have different interpretations of the original messages based on their own experiences. Consequently, the meaning of a message can be different from the one intended because it is decoded according to the receiver’s structures of meaning and knowledge. 47 Several factors influence the way in which the receiver perceives the message. These can range from the nature of the medium and the image that the receivers hold of it, to the very nature of the receivers – the structure of their personality, their membership in a particular audience, and their social environment. Processes of message production are also influenced by several factors, including the self-image of the producer, the structure of his or her personality, their work team, their role in the organisation, their social environment and natural limitations of the media of choice. 48 Likewise, mediation reference points such as schools, family, leisure options and material conditions also influence the reception process. 49 Based on the critiques and contributions that different theorists have made to the conceptualisation of horizontal communication, Beltrán, one of the foundational scholars and practitioners of the communication for development field, proposed a new definition: Communication is the process of democratic social interaction based on the exchange of symbols by which human beings voluntarily share their experiences under conditions of free and equal access, dialogue, and participation. Everyone has the right to communicate in order to meet their communication needs by making use of communication resources. Humans communicate for multiple purposes. Exercising influence over the behaviour of others is not the most important of them. 50 Emisor-receptor(EMI-REC) system This system, proposed by Jean Cloutier, suggests that the conditions of sender(EMI) and receiver (REC) are found in the individual, who is also surrounded by other EMI-RECs and by multiple media (audio, visual and written) designed to send and receive messages. 51 The dialogic model An example of a horizontal communication model is the dialogic model, which is bidirectional and understands communication as a dialogue; but while still privileging the receiver’s point of view, the roles of sender and receiver are continuously exchanged. Communication as dialogue involves an ongoing relationship of one human being towards the other. Instead of a method, technique or format, dialogue is an attitude, a principle and an orientation in communication practice. Characterising communication requires fulfilling several conditions, including authentic and honest exchange; mutual empathic understanding; basic recognition of the other as a full human being; conscious and complete connection during communication; perception of equality; and mutual support. 52 This model of communication enables interlocutors to understand the rationale behind their individual actions, as well as their willingness to change them. However, 47 McQuail, D. Op. cit. p. 100. 48 Carmo, D. F. do.(2015). Maletzke – La psicología en la comunicación colectiva, validación y aplicación de su modelo en la sociedad digital del conocimiento.(Doctoral thesis). Complutense University of Madrid. Faculty of Information Sciences. 49 Orozco-Gómez, G.(1997). Medios, audiencias y mediaciones. Comunicar, 8, pp. 25–30.(p.26). 50 Beltrán, L.R.(1981). Adiós Aristóteles: La comunicación“horizontal”. Comunicación y Sociedad. 1(6). pp. 5-35. 51 Cloutier, J.(1973). La Communication Audio-Scripto-Visuelle, Montreal: Presses Universitaires. 52 Johannesen, R. L.(1971). The emerging concept of communication as dialogue. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 57(4), pp. 373-382. 14

CHAPTER THREE the changing nature of human beings, and the need to know their characteristics and circumstances more broadly, demands dynamic and constant communication exchanges. Dialogic communication between human beings enables the collective construction of identity and shared meaning, both of which are necessary to determine the course of common action. On one hand, belonging to a collective on the basis of identification has an influence over individual social behaviour; on the other hand, it is in personal relationships with other individuals, signs, symbols and meanings that individuals can make sense of their own context. 53 This vision of dialogic communication is ideal if applied to processes of change or development in large populations. It demands processes of interaction specifically designed to deeply know and understand what members of a population feel, think and believe – a depth of involvement that development processes rarely have. Theory of dialogic action Paulo Freire’s elaboration on the Theory of Dialogic Action states that collaboration is the fundamental characteristic of an interaction between individuals, which is only possible through communication. Dialogic action seeks to transform the world through collaboration, never in a hierarchical relationship. Thus, if individuals and social groups aim to address a problematic reality through a dialogic response, they can discover the world and themselves during the process by generating trust and support of others pursuing a shared goal. 54 This model of communication also has a variation known as ritual, alternative, or expressive communication, associated with the representation of shared beliefs through participation and association. This perspective considers that sharing concepts and emotions is crucial for the satisfaction of audiences. Rather than having a specific use, communication is seen as an end in itself. Even though its messages are latent and ambiguous due to the influence of culture, ritual communication may favour a greater integration of society by intervening in the unification and mobilisation of beliefs and values. The focus of a ritual vision is not to extend messages in space, but to maintain a society over time. 55 The convergence model This model is a dialogic approach in which the process of dialogue is inextricably linked to collective action. A fundamental characteristic of this model is that communication is represented as a horizontal process, shared between two or more people within a social network with the goal of exchanging information, and not simply transmitting it in one direction. Another important feature of the convergence model is that it emphasises the important role of participants’ perceptions and interpretations when seeking understanding through dialogue and cultural conversations. It suggests horizontal and symmetrical relationships between people, which are only possible through shared information. As a result, mutual understanding and collective action are reached through agreements at social levels, while greater perception, interpretation and understanding are pursued at individual levels. Consequently, the convergence model demands a continuous, dynamic process in which participants take turns to create information and share it with others; this information is interpreted and reinterpreted until a degree of mutual understanding that enables the generation of agreements and collective action is achieved. 56 53 Maldonado, A.M.& Oliva, A.V.H.(2010). El proceso de la construcción de la identidad colectiva. Convergencia, Journal of Social Sciences, 53(May-August), pp. 229-251. 54 Freire, P.(1998). ¿Extensión o comunicación?: la concientización en el medio rural.(21st Ed). México: Siglo 21 Editores. 55 McQuail, D. Op. cit. 56 Figueroa, E., Kincaid, L., Rani, M.& Lewis, G.(2002) Op. cit. 15

CHAPTER THREE 3.1.3 An integrative view of the models When comparing vertical and horizontal communication models, it is possible to suggest that in spite of their differences in foundations, structures, strategies and measurement tools, each of them can use elements proposed by the other. In other words, no model can be purely vertical or horizontal in practice. Projects based on the diffusion model often recognise the importance of community participation, while those based on the participatory model eventually resort to the use of diffusion strategies for specific purposes. Therefore, it can be argued that the most successful communication strategies are those in which both models are used and combined according to the particular circumstances of time, mode and place under which they are framed. 57 3.2 PARADIGMS OF COMMUNICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT From its inception, communication for development has sought to eliminate limitations for a more equitable and participatory society. In this sense, two lines of thinking that seem opposed to one another have been particularly influential: the information diffusion approach(or dominant paradigm), and the participatory or alternative paradigm(derived from the dependency paradigm). While the first emphasises persuasion, the second focuses on dialogue and empowerment as more effective paths to change. Communication strategies and approaches have evolved along with the development paradigms discussed in the previous chapter. 3.2.1 Information diffusion approach(or dominant paradigm) Consistent with the conception of development as economic development and an idea of communication as an enabler in the transmission of ideas and conceptions about modernisation, a first stage of communication for development was aimed at‘reproducing at one point, either exactly or approximately, a message selected at another point’. 58 Based on this definition, a diffusion model that promotes change through unidirectional and vertical information transfer was conceived. Strategies, theories and implementation models, such as the Diffusion of Innovations Theory, mass media interventions, classical entertainment-education, social marketing, health promotion and education, have often privileged the transmission of information as the central axis of change through different types of media. 59 One of the main indicators of success in this paradigm is its capacity to measure and quantify the influence of media on individual behaviour change. A campaign aimed at promoting the use of condoms through television adverts, leaflets and billboards, for example, would be the most effective way to provide information on where to access them and promote their benefits. Despite its contribution to projects interested in awareness-raising and information dissemination to increase knowledge, however, this model has been criticised for its limited attention to the characteristics and roles that recipients play in communication processes. Critics have also described it as overly supportive of a hierarchical model of communication and over-reliant on recipients’ exposure to specific media as a concrete indicator of development. 3.2.2 The dependency paradigm The dependency paradigm is underpinned by the critiques of the dominant or diffusion paradigm noted above. Emerging out of Latin-America with the decolonisation movement of the 1960s, proponents of this paradigm questioned the normative hierarchical paradigms of the elites in control of the media and asserted approaches for achieving social change that are rooted in local perspectives. Two schools of thought represent the dependency paradigm: the culturalist, and the political economy schools. The first conceives the media as effective ways of transmitting the culture 57 Morris, N.(2003) Op. cit. 58 Mattelart, A.& Mattelart, M.(1997). Historia de las teorías de la Comunicación. Barcelona: Paidós. 16 59 Morris, N.(2003) Op. cit.

CHAPTER THREE and ideology of dominant countries to the oppressed, i.e. given the natural imbalance of information flows between these two contexts, communication becomes another factor of domination. The second school of thought questions the concentration of power in the media, i.e. given that powerful economic and political actors typically own them, the media also ends up contributing to social control through the transmission of ideologies and values of dominant sectors. 3.2.3 The alternative(or participatory) paradigm The need for communities to lead their own development processes, and therefore to be involved in the design, implementation and evaluation of communication strategies, emerged as a concrete response to the dominant paradigm.‘Because programmes came from outside villages, communities felt that innovations did not belong to them but to the government and thus expected the latter to fix things when they went wrong.’ 60 In response to the dominant paradigm, the alternative paradigm of communication encourages communities to own development strategies and to develop different skills in the search for solutions to the problems they face. Since self-organising and management is considered the most advanced form of participation, this paradigm assigned a prominent place to participatory communication:‘The general public exercises its decision-making power in communication endeavours and is fully involved in the design of communication policies and plans.’ 61 In this sense, participation is justified when interventions are managed and planned by communities themselves because they can take part in decision-making processes. In the case of HIV and AIDS prevention, for example, the alternative paradigm would not simply suggest promoting a particular behaviour such as the use of condoms, but would also mobilise communities to be responsible for analysing different solutions to the problem at hand, planning meetings or activities, volunteering for home visits, and participating in the evaluation of external strategies from their own perspective. Rosa Maria Alfaro, the author and Peruvian scholar, has argued that the dissemination of messages or stimuli on individuals is not effective. She further states that effectiveness in communication is expected to be achieved through dialogue and active relationships between individuals. Effective communication appeals to the agency of individuals to mobilise their minds and hearts, both in the long term and in times of crisis.’ 62 Interestingly, Paulo Freire had stated that since individuals are in constant interaction with one another, they cannot be passive or easily manipulated; therefore, they could not conceive communication without dialogue. 63 There are great contributions in communication strategies from around the world, such as philosophies and traditions of communication for social change in Sri Lanka, the use of theatre as a channel for development in the Philippines, indigenous communication systems proposed in Papua New Guinea, inclusion of political messages in traditional rituals in China, theatrical animation for social transformation in India, and the use of popular theatre for development in Asia and Africa. 64 Similarly, different authors have identified important limitations to communication practice within this paradigm. One of them is that participation can be used in the same instrumental fashion proposed by diffusion models. According to Gumucio, in recent years, proponents of social marketing have incorporated participatory communication in their discourse and sometimes in their practice. Nevertheless, the original model is still based on intensive use of mass media for campaign strategies that target populations with homogenising messages. The supposed beneficiaries are regarded as clients who must change their behaviour based on the assumption that their daily practices are wrong and need to be corrected. 65 60 Waisbord, S.(2001) Op. cit. 61 Servaes, J.& Malikhao, P.(2005). Participatory communication: The new paradigm. In O. Hemer and T. Tufte,(Eds.), Media and Glocal Change: Rethinking Communication for Development(pp. 91-103). Buenos Aires: CLASCO. 62 Alfaro, R. M.(1993). cit. p. 26. 63 Freire, P.(1998). Op. cit. 64 Wang, G.& Dissanayake, W.(Eds.).(1984). Continuity and change in communication systems: An Asian perspective. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. 65 Gumucio, A.(2004). El cuarto mosquetero: la comunicación para el cambio social. Investigación& Desarrollo, 12(1), pp.1-22. 17

CHAPTER THREE Other critics point out the lack of consensus around the term participation, the lack of methodologies to measure empowerment processes, and a utopian perception of the central tenets of this paradigm. Likewise, there are several limitations to achieving the goals sought by strategies that fall in the alternative paradigm, such as the lack of governmental responsibility on development issues, the limited engagement of communities, and difficulties to achieve sustainability both in terms of programme funding and promoted behaviours. 3.2.4 Communication for social change perspective As previously explained, the participatory or alternative paradigm was promoted by practitioners from Asia, Africa and Latin America as a response to the limited contributions of the dominant paradigm to the reduction of poverty. The alternative or participatory paradigm emphasises collective over individual social changes, as well as communication actions coming from communities over those framed for them. 66 The communication for social change perspective incorporates some new trends to the participatory paradigm, by questioning development interventions that do not involve the most affected and isolated communities in their conception. From this perspective,‘in addition to valuing local knowledge,[the communication field] understood the need to respect traditional forms of social organisation and to strengthen them to have a valid and representative audience’. 67 Although some forms of community participation had gained significant development during the 1970s and 1980s, it was only in the late 1990s that the idea of communication for social change started to achieve conceptual and theoretical elaboration. Perhaps the most significant difference between the concepts of communication for development and communication for social change is that in the former, communication efforts could have an institutional origin or even be part of international agendas, while in the latter, communication processes and their contents must emerge from the communities themselves through empowerment and dialogue. According to Alfaro, even in close-knit communities, there will always be differences among human beings; therefore, communication efforts cannot pretend to lead to homogenous communities/ societies, as certain views of development tend to assume. Difference should not be seen as an obstacle, but rather as a crucial element that leads to building relationships of respect and plurality through dialogue. 68 3.3 CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES Communication approaches help operationalise communication strategies. Several models have been developed to bring to practice particular paradigms of communication and the perspectives of social or individual change that they promote. 69 3.3.1 Information and Education Approach Inspired by strategies undertaken in counselling and health education in various parts of the global South(especially during the growth of family planning programmes in the 1970s and the child survival revolution of the 1980s), the Information and Education Approach implements vertical communication strategies to promote messages with recommended behaviours. Its main strategies are dissemination, persuasion and social marketing. 66 Gumucio-Dagron, A.(2011). Comunicación para el cambio social: clave del desarrollo participativo. Signo y pensamiento, 30(58), pp. 26-39. (p. 28). 67 Ibid., p. 35. 68 Alfaro, R. M.(1993). Op. cit. 69 Obregón, R.& Mosquera, M.(2005). Participatory and cultural challenges for research and practice in health communication. In O. Hemer and T. Tufte,(Eds.), Media and Glocal Change: Rethinking Communication for Development(pp. 233-246). Buenos Aires: CLASCO. 18

CHAPTER THREE 3.3.2 Information, Education and Communication Information, Education and Communication is focused primarily on generating behaviour change through information provision. It involves a greater combination of mass media and interpersonal communication and makes use of knowledge, attitudes and practices, surveys, as well as educational materials. 3.3.3 Communication for Behaviour Change This approach, also known as Behaviour Change Communication, integrates the previous strategies with social mobilisation. In addition, social and behavioural psychology theoretical frameworks and audience research play an important role in this approach. 3.3.4 Context-Based Approach The Context-Based Approach proposes analysis of the contextual elements that can be favourable for individual and social change. These changes can be promoted through different strategies specifically designed for different levels of change, including individual, institutional or environmental levels. This model evolved into Social and Behaviour Change Communication, which promotes a social and ecological approach in communication interventions. 3.3.5 Communication for Social Change Finally, Communication for Social Change emphasises elements of participation and dialogue, acknowledges the role of alternative media, and places great emphasis on the empowerment of the individual and the community. In summary, the different approaches of communication for development and social change describe a transition from diffusion-based models(such as the Information and Education Approach) based on individual change and vertical communication, to models emphasising the role of context and communities in their own processes of change(such as Communication for Social Change). Figure 1: Evolution of Communication Approaches Diffusion/Individual Participatory/Structural Diffusion/ Persuasion/ Social Marketing Information/ Education/ Communication Communication and Behaviour Change Context-Based Approach Communication for Social Change Convergence Model No magic formula Diversity in structures+ diversity of strategies+ multIplicity of interventions = Field growth= New conceptual approaches Source: Authors’ own adaptation 19

CHAPTER THREE 3.4 COMMUNICATION PLANNING MODELS 3.4.1 P Process This is a tool for planning strategic, evidenced-based communication programmes. It combines elements from different disciplines such as social psychology and anthropology, and is implemented more often in interventions focused on individual behaviour change. The P Process has been used mainly in the field of public health 70 , for example HIV reduction programmes, sexual and reproductive health promotion, reduction of maternal mortality, prevention of infectious diseases, and environmental protection. In 2013, the Health Communication Capacity Collaborative updated the P Process guideline document with lessons learned from actual experiences of implementation and new technologies as a specific element better adapted to current needs. In this new model, cross-cutting elements such as theoretical frameworks, stakeholder participation and capacity-building were added. Figure 2: The P Process Source: Health Communication Capacity Collaborative(November 2013) 70 Health Communication Capacity Collaborative(2013). The P Process. Five Steps to Strategic Communication. Retrieved June 05, 2019, from Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Center for Communication Programmes: http://www.healthcommcapacity.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/04/P-Process-Brochure.pdf. 20

CHAPTER THREE As Figure 2 illustrates, the P Process mentions five key stages in the planning process: inquiry; strategy design; creation and testing; mobilisation and monitoring; and evaluation and evolution. Each of these stages is, in turn, subdivided into a series of steps or actions: 71 Stage 1: Inquiry 1. Begin to understand the extent of the problem 2. Identify your audiences 3. Uncover your intended audiences’ barriers to behaviour change 4. Identify facilitating factors to behaviour change, including potential messengers and media 5. Develop a succinct problem statement Stage 2: Strategy design 6. Create a plan to achieve the intended goal 7. Include communication objectives 8. Segment the audiences 9. Determine programme approaches 10. Identify recommended channels 11. Design the work plan 12. Design the monitoring and evaluation plan Stage 3: Creation and testing 13. Include mass media and materials 14. Develop participatory processes 15. Implement workshops 16. Test/validate ideas and designs with the audiences Stage 4: Mobilisation and monitoring 17. Distribute products and implement activities 18. Monitor activities 19. Identify problems and solve them quickly Stage 5: Evaluation and evolution 20. Determine the effectiveness of the programme 21. Identify its effects on knowledge, attitudes and practices 22. Identify lessons learned for future programmes 71 Health Communication Capacity Collaborative(2013) Op. cit. pp. 5-14 21

CHAPTER THREE 3.4.2 The COMBI Approach Communication for Behavioural Impact(COMBI) is a step-by-step approach to planning, implementation and monitoring of communication actions seeking to generate behavioural changes on health issues. 72 Reasons for using COMBI include ensuring that it has a greater impact on behaviour, maximisation of funds and attraction of funders, production of a measurable impact, and audience motivation, among others. The five integrated actions of the COMBI strategy are: 73 • • Advocacy • • Community mobilisation • • Appropriate and sustained advertising • • Interpersonal communication • • Promotion at health service points The World Health Organisation has promoted this model as an effective way of impacting behaviours. The COMBI Model has been used in multiple control interventions for managing outbreaks of diseases such as dengue, chikungunya and zika. Figure 3: 15 Steps of COMBI Planning 74 1 Put together a multidisciplinary team 2 Establish preliminary behavioural changes 3 Planning and formative research 4 Get feedback about formative research 8 Test behaviours, messages and materials 7 Design the communication strategy 6 Segment target audiences 9 Establish monitoring system 10 Strengthen staff skills 15 Implement a pilot test and review the strategic plan 11 Establish information management and sharing systems 14 Determine the budget 5 Analyse, prioritise and specify final behavioural changes 12 Structure the programme 13 Write a strategic implementation plan 72 Parks, W.& Lloyd, L.(2004). Planning social mobilisation and communication for dengue fever prevention and control: a step-by-step guide. Geneva: WHO. 73 Parks, W.& Lloyd, L.(2004) Op. cit. p. 7 74 Parks, W.& Lloyd, L.(2004) Op. cit. p. 8 22

CHAPTER THREE Value for Continual Improvement External Constraints and Support 3.4.3 Integrated Model of Communication for Social Change Another model frequently used in the field of communication for social change has been the Integrated Model for Communication and Social Change(IMCFSC). It emerged from the need to find a communication model that did not replicate the classic models of communication that identify senders and receivers to achieve specific changes. Instead, the IMCFSC presents a cyclical and relational process based on dialogue and collective action that can result in mutual change rather than simply individual change. This model proposes a definition of communities through more complex criteria than their geographical location. Figure 4: Integrated Model of Communication for Social Change CATALYST Internal V Stimulus Change Agent Innovation Policies Technology Mass Media Recognition of a Problem COMMUNITY DIALOGUE Identification and Involvement of Leaders and Stakeholders Clarification of Perceptions Expression of Individual and Shared Interests Vision of the Future Action Plan Assignment of Responsibilities Ÿ Ÿ Individuals Ÿ Ÿ Existing Community Groups Ÿ Ÿ New Community Ÿ Ÿ Task Forces Ÿ Ÿ Others Conflict – Dissatisfaction Disagreement Consensus on Action Options for Action Setting Objectives COLLECTIVE ACTION Mobilisation of Organisations Ÿ Ÿ Media Ÿ Ÿ Health Ÿ Ÿ Education Ÿ Ÿ Religious Ÿ Ÿ Other Implementation Outcomes Assessment of Current Status Participatory Evaluation Ÿ Ÿ Other Outcomes vs Objectives Individual Change • • Skills • • Ideation Knowledge, Attitudes, Perceived Risk, Subjective Norms, Self-Image, Emotion, Self-Efficacy, Social Influence and Personal Advocacy • • Intention • • Behaviour Social Change • • Leadership • • Degree and Equity of Participation • • Information Equity • • Collective Self-Efficacy • • Sense of Ownership • • Social Cohesion • • Social Norms SOCIETAL IMPACT Source: Figueroa, M. E., Kincaid, D. L., Rani, M.& Lewis, G.(2002), p. 7 23

CHAPTER THREE Catalysts Catalysts are external or internal stimuli leading to dialogue and collective actions aimed at solving problems in a specific community. If communities do not begin this dialogue by themselves, the presence of an external agent is helpful. Internal stimuli, agents of change, innovations, policies, available technologies, and mass media are some examples of catalysts. Community dialogue The Integrated Communication Model for Social Change describes an interactive process in which community dialogue and collective action work together to produce social change. Based on evidence from previous interventions, community dialogue emerges through a series of steps that, if successful, can more effectively lead to social change. When one of these steps does not yield the expected results, communities can always review the previous stages and make new decisions. These steps are: 1. Problem characterisation 2. Identification and involvement of leaders and audiences 3. Clarification of perceptions 4. Expression of individual and shared interest 5. Vision for the future 6. Assessment of the current status(situation) 7. Definition of objectives 8. Options for action 9. Consensus on action 10. Action plan Collective action Collective action is understood as the process of implementing the action plan constructed by the community, and evaluating the results thereof. The model identifies five key steps at this stage: 1. Assigning responsibilities 2. Mobilisation of organisations 3. Implementation 4. Results 5. Participatory evaluation Just as there are catalysts, there are also possible external constraints or restrictions that may impede dialogue and community action. These are usually beyond the communities’ control and include natural disasters, extreme poverty, or structural elements such as geographic location. However, community action may remove these limitations or obtain external support to reduce them. Results When community dialogue and collective action are carried out according to the steps previously explained, the following results could be expected: • • Collective self-efficacy • • Sense of belonging • • Social cohesion • • Adaptation of social norms • • Collective capacity 24

CHAPTER THREE Social and individual change Individual behaviour change was the main objective of many health campaigns based on dissemination models; they tended to focus their efforts on a specific behaviour only sustainable for short periods of time(e.g. vaccination focused on specific diseases). When social change occurs, however, a longterm development process is more likely(i.e. improved access to and demand for immunisation services), although it is also possible that social change is not sustainable to the extent that it is not rooted in individual behavioural changes. Campaigns based on dissemination models have been criticised by many scholars and practitioners 75 as tending to place emphasis primarily on individual behaviour change. Because this approach is often limited to addressing only one specific behaviour, without close attention being paid to the context in which it happens, scholars and researchers have pointed out that its impact was observed to be short-lived and often unsustainable. 76 However, in frameworks targeted at both the individual and social levels – such as the one proposed by IMFCSC – there is a self-sustaining improvement in intended outcomes because individuals collectively develop and take ownership of the behaviours and outcomes they agree will work for them in their context. The fight against dengue fever serves as a helpful illustration of the arguments proposed by IMFCSC. Lessons learned in the Region of the Americas 77 showed that knowing the social context helps to communicate in the language of the community and negotiate popular and scientific knowledge. An analysis of the COMBI experiences in dengue prevention and control in 15 countries showed that better results were obtained when strategies integrated actions at the individual and collective levels. Even when individuals change their behaviour, they may remain vulnerable to mosquito bites when, for example, their neighbours do not cover water tanks properly, when the government does not meet the necessary sanitation standards, or when they cannot access certain protection tools. This analysis highlighted the importance of collective solutions and the need to have committed partners willing to interact in interdisciplinary teams among different sectors in order to extend their potential for impact. Another lesson learned in this case was the need to obtain information about networks interacting in each area in order to enhance local communication processes for dengue prevention and other prioritised health issues. 3.4.4 The Social and Behaviour Change Communication(SBCC) Model This model is an evidence-based process that integrates elements from different behaviour and social change models focused on the needs of communities. SBCC uses the Socio-Ecological Model (see next page) as a reference to interpret individual behaviours in relation to the attributes of people; environmental conditions; their place of residence, work, study; and the interactions between people and those environments. 78 This model seeks social change through different spheres interacting with one another: it fosters changes in policies, institutional arrangements, social norms and community conditions with the aim of affecting behaviour of individuals by influencing their family circle or those with whom they have emotional ties. 79 SBCC is characterised by its analysis of variables such as knowledge, motivation, capacities and social norms, as well as the use of strategies such as advocacy and social mobilisation. 80 This approach 75 Melkote, S. R.& Steeves, H. L.(2003) Op. cit. 76 Hornik, R.(Ed.).(2002). Public Health Communication: Evidence for Behavior Change. Routledge; Naugle, D.& Hornik, R.(2014). Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Mass Media Interventions for Child Survival for Low and Middle-Income Countries. Journal of Health Communication, 19(1), pp. 190-215. 77 Pan American Health Organisation.(2011). Sistematización delecciones aprendidas en proyectos COMBI en dengue en la Región de las Américas. Costa Rica: OPS/WHO. 78 Abroms, L. C.& Maibach, E. W.(2008). The effectiveness of mass communication to change public behaviour. Annual Review of Public Health, 29, pp. 219-234. 79 USAID. C-CHANGE.(2012). Implementation guide for the global communication strategy for social change in the Guatemalan highlands. Guatemala. 80 World Food Programme.(2014). Design of the Capacity-Building Strategy through Information, Education and Communication for the Implementation of the Programme for the Prevention and Reduction of Nutritional Anemia in Early Childhood in the Departments of Bolivar and La Guajira. Working Paper. Cartagena: Observatory of the Colombian Caribbean. 25

CHAPTER THREE nciples, Competencies, Planning Tools Pri 3 Creating 2 & Foc De u n in ingg has been applied in areas that heed HIV, malaria, family planning, Ebola and child nutrition, among many others. Its application has become popular in different parts of the world, to the extent that in 2016 more than 600 researchers and professionals gathered in Addis Ababa(Ethiopia) to present the experiences and results of programmes and interventions based on this perspective. SBCC emphasises the role that communication can play in facilitating processes of social and individual change, including individual behaviours and social norms(C-Change, 2012). SBCC has the following characteristics: Figure 5: Steps of the SBCC Planning Process andatio in ng The five steps proposed by the SBCC model are: 1. Situational analysis/understanding the situation; 2. Formulation of the communication strategy; 3. Creation of effective communication materials and activities; 4. Implementation and monitoring; and 5. Evaluation and replanning. singsigning 1 theUnderst Situ PLANNING Imp 4 & Mo Adapted from National Cancer Institute: Health Communication Program Cycle(1989); AED: Tool Box for Building Health Communication Capacity(1995) Parker, Dalrymple, and Durden: The Integrated Strategy Wheel(1998); Mckee, Manoncourt, Chin, Carnegie, ACADA Model(2000); Health Communication Partnership, P-Process Brochure(2003). Figure 6: Three Key Strategies of SBCC nitor e i n n t g ing lem Evaluepla a n t & R Source: C-Change(2012), Practitioner’s Handbook, Module 0, p. 8 ADVOCACY SOCIAL MOBILISATION HAVIMMUO NICAT UR CHANI COBE Allia nces GEON l Nationa PLANNING CONTINUUM SERVICES AND PRODUCTS Individual and Community: Multimedia, Participatory Approaches to Com and munity: Partnerships Political and Social Commitment SBCC works through three key strategies that reinforce one another: a. Promotion and advocacy to increase resources, as well as political and social leaders’ commitment to development actions and goals; b. Social mobilisation to expand participation, as well as partnership building and ownership, including community mobilisation; and c. Communication for behaviour change to promote changes in knowledge, attitudes and practices in specific participants/audiences. Source: Adapted from McKee, N. Social Mobilization and 26 Social Marketing in Developing Communities(1992)

CHAPTER THREE Figure 7: SBCC Analysis Model and Variables Socio-Ecological Model for Change * These concepts apply to all levels(people, organisations, and institutions). They were originally developed for the individual level. Adapted from Mckee, Manoncourt, Chin, Carnegie(2000). SBCC applies a socio-ecological model that examines several levels of influence to provide insight on the causes of problems and find tipping points for change. C-Change’s SocioEcological Model for Change, applied throughout the C-Modules, is a combination of ecological models and sociological and psychological factors that will assist programs engaged in analysis and planning. It has two parts: 1. Levels of analysis , the rings of the model, represent both domains of influence as well as the people involved in each level. 2. Cross-cutting factors in the triangle influence each of the actors and structures in the rings. The levels of analysis(represented by the rings) are: • • individual most affected by the issue(or self) • • direct influencers on the individual (represented by two rings): - the interpersonal: partners, family, and peers - the community: organisations, service structures, providers, as well as products available Both the interpersonal and community rings shape community and gender norms, access to and demand for community resources, and existing services. Indirect influences make up the outer enabling environment. Components may facilitate or hinder change, and include national policies and legislation, political forces, prevailing economic conditions, the private sector, religion, technology, and the natural environment. Actors such as national government, business, and faith and movement leaders are often targets for advocacy and social mobilization activities. Each level of analysis and the actor s/institutions within each level are influenced by several cross-cutting factors (the triangle of influence). It is on these cross-cutting factors that SBCC interventions may be able to generate change. These factors may act in isolation or in combination. To help identify them, they are in four large categories: information, motivation, ability to act, and norms. People need information that is timely, accessible, and relevant. When looking at information, SBCC practitioners consider the level of knowledge held by a person or group – e.g., about modern contraceptives and their side effects. With such information, some individuals, groups, or communities may be empowered to act. For most people, information is not enough to prompt change. People require motivation , which is often determined by their attitudes, beliefs, or perceptions of the benefits, risks, or seriousness of the issues that programs are trying to change – e.g., attitudes toward condom use, beliefs about the benefits of family planning, or risk perceptions of HIV infection. Motivation can be affected by SBCC methods or strategies, such as effective counselling, peer education, entertaining radio broadcasts, or TV programs. If done well, such communication can foster individual attitude and behaviour change, as well as social norm change. However, even motivation may not be enough. For instance, few women and girls in the countries hardest hit by HIV and AIDS have the power to negotiate the time and conditions for having sex, including condom use, or they may lack the funds to buy condoms. They need the ability to act in particular circumstances. Practitioners should look at the actual skills self-efficacy(or collective efficacy), and access of the actors. Skills include psychosocial life skills: problem-solving; decision-making; negotiation; critical and creative thinking; interpersonal communication; and other relationship skills, such as empathy. Self-efficacy is concerned with the confidence of individuals and groups(collective-efficacy) in their own skills to affect change. Access includes financial, geographical, or transport issues that affect access to services and ability to buy products. Finally, norms – as expressed in perceived, socio-cultural, and/or gender norms – have considerable influence. Norms reflect the values of the group and/or society at large and social expectations about behaviour. Perceived norms are those that an individual believes others are holding and therefore are expected of him or her. Socio-cultural norms are those that the community as a whole follows because of social status or cultural conventions Source: C-Change(2012). Practitioner’s Handbook, Module 1. pp 12-13 27

CHAPTER FOUR CHAPTER 4 COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES In the lingo of communication, it is common to find that the use of certain words in indiscriminate and alternating ways often creates confusion. Concepts such as communication strategy, communication campaign or communication plan are often used synonymously when speaking about the implementation of a communication process. Moreover, a communication product may be often equated to the communication strategy or campaign, which at the end of the day significantly affects the quality and impact of any communication initiative. In practice, many organisations and institutions still perceive communication as a matter of creating communication products such as posters, videos, or workshops, without any particular strategic consideration oriented at generating change. It is very important to distinguish among these concepts in order to gain greater clarity and precision of what communication strategies can actually do. Although this review is not exhaustive and could include other concepts or a different structure, this classification helps to understand the difference between key communication issues relevant to the focus of this manual. Communication as a strategy, campaign and product 81 In order to establish differences between these concepts, it is necessary to discuss the following levels: Communication paradigm The first level is constituted by the communication paradigms. A paradigm is a set of ideas, concepts or approaches that permeates the ways in which we try to understand a social phenomenon, in this case, the concept of development. For this reason, the paradigms previously explained suggest a specific way of looking at communication processes, depending on the concept of development promoted in each case. The way in which communication is approached is crucial in the design of communication projects because it determines whether they are only aimed at disseminating information, generating public dialogue and debate, promoting social change, or fostering individual changes. Communication strategy The next level refers to the concept of communication strategy. A strategy is defined as a particular course of action designed to achieve a specific goal. The successful implementation of a strategy requires adequate management of existing resources, a description of how these resources will be organised, and the mechanisms that will be applied for their administration and use. In the context of health communication, Luis Ramiro Beltrán 82 states that‘health communication strategies may cover a large or small territory and involve various behaviours, may be applied over a relatively long time, engage many people, and require considerable resources’. Consequently, a communication strategy is a structured process of tactics and communication activities developed with the purpose of achieving specific goals. For example, the entertainmenteducation(E-E) strategy(to be discussed in detail in section 4.3) is defined as the intended process of designing and implementing messages that seek to entertain and educate in order to increase 81 Rodríguez, C., Obregón, R.& Vega, J.(2000) Op. cit. 82 Beltrán, L.R.(1994). La salud y la comunicación en Latinoamérica: políticas, estrategias y planes. In Unesco/OPS/OMS, Por una política de comunicación para la promoción de la salud en América Latina: conclusiones de la Reunión del Comité Asesor sobre Políticas de Comunicación Social en los Ministerios de Salud Pública para la Promoción de la Salud.(pp. 29-81) Quito: Unesco. 28

CHAPTER FOUR audience awareness about a topic, promote positive attitudes, and stimulate behaviour change. 83 Likewise, the strategy known as‘media advocacy’ or‘information activism’ is defined as the strategic use of the mass media to promote a social or public initiative. 84 While E-E attempts to generate both individual and collective changes(for example, promotion of healthy sexual practices) based on emotional factors involved in storytelling, information activism seeks to generate changes at social levels through the promotion of legislation or public policies that affect wider segments of the population(for example, greater restrictions on cigarette or alcohol consumption). In both cases, there is a level of specificity about what you want to achieve and how to achieve it. Each of these strategies can become the central axis of an intervention in communication, and stimulate processes aiming to achieve specific objectives. For example, in the United States, advocacy has been key in the efforts of groups interested in introducing new legislation to make more strict laws against drunken driving(for example, the group Mothers Against Drunk Driving(MADD) has used this strategy very effectively). A communication strategy can also be composed of several strategic approaches. For example, the experience of the Soul City Institute for Social Justice in South Africa(further explained in the following pages) shows that the strategy of E-E, which is the main vehicle of action in this case, can be accompanied by other strategies, for example, advocacy and social mobilisation. This combination of strategic approaches makes Soul City’s a macro strategy with larger impact. At the same time, combining these strategies generates an adequate mix of different forms of communication(mass, group, and interpersonal). Communication plan This level corresponds to the second step of the communication planning models(introduced earlier) after the situational analysis. Communication plans define audiences, messages, channels and media, as well as budgets and accountability. A communication plan is a more administrative concept in the process of defining an intervention in communication. Communication campaign Flay and Burton 85 define a communication campaign as‘an integrated series of activities using multiple operations and channels aimed at populations or large target audiences, usually of long duration, with a clear purpose’. A communication campaign will often encounter difficulties if some of the elements suggested in the definition are not completely fulfilled. For example, a communication campaign may be ineffective if it lacks solid planning, only uses isolated communication tools, if it does not clearly define its audience, if its objectives are unclear, or if it is of a very short duration. A communication plan may include one or more campaigns, and, in turn, a campaign may be a component of a broader communication strategy. As evidenced in the above definitions, strategies and communication campaigns tend to have several elements in common. However, it is worth noting some important differences. While a communication campaign is designed to respond to a specific situation(for example, to promote a law so that community groups have greater access to the media), a communication strategy may be used specifically within the framework of the campaign, but its conceptual references can also be used in subsequent campaigns. A communication strategy can also offer a conceptual and practical framework to respond to a specific situation in different moments and rely on targeted campaigns. 83 Singhal, A.& Rogers, E.(1999). Entertainment-Education: A Communication Strategy for Social Change. Mahwah. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 84 Pertschuk, M.(1988). Smoking Control: Media Advocacy Guidelines. Washington, DC: Advocacy Institute for the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. 85 Flay, B.R.& Burton, D.(1990). Effective Mass Communication Strategies for Health Campaigns. In C. Atkin& L. Wallack(Eds.), Mass Communication and Public Health(129-145) Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 29

CHAPTER FOUR A campaign, even if it uses elements from its original strategy, offers a package of specific processes and actions to respond to a particular problem at a specific point in time. We often talk about communication strategies in a broad sense, using the concept similarly to the concepts of projects or interventions that can include – or not include – several communication campaigns. For example, the communication strategy of the national HIV/AIDS programme in Brazil carried out several campaigns throughout the year(Carnival, World AIDS Day, and specific campaigns targeting vulnerable groups such as truck drivers and pregnant women). These campaigns are accompanied by other communication strategies, tactics and activities – including advocacy, social mobilisation and entertainment-education – always from an approach aimed at generating dialogue and public debate. Communication product Communication products constitute the last level. A communication product is the most concrete and visible result of a communication campaign or strategy, often corresponding to the media products that accompany a strategy or campaign – videos, CD-ROMs, adverts, posters, brochures, etc. – or the processes developed within it – workshops, demonstrations, etc. Communication products are important to the extent that they are the result of a process and a much broader structure and vision of communication, but they cannot become the sole support of a strategy or a campaign. For example, a video aimed at reducing child abuse may be very useful, but in most cases will not be enough to bring about profound changes. A communication campaign may have a variety of highquality communication products, but if they are not integrated into a vision of communication as a process, their impact will be considerably diminished. Understanding communication as a process, as opposed to the traditional vision of communication as a product, is key at this stage. Having made these important distinctions, the following pages introduce different available communication strategies in communication for social and behaviour change. 4.1 SOCIAL MARKETING 86 Social marketing is defined as the design, implementation and management of projects intended to increase the acceptance of ideas and/or social practices in a pre-defined target audience. It involves changing attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of individuals or organisations for the benefit of society. 87 In order to achieve successful results, social marketing requires contributions from fields such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, law, educational sciences, and commercial marketing. Many concepts of commercial marketing can be used in the design of social campaigns, however there are some significant differences, including: • • The price the audience is being asked to pay is not always a monetary one. Sometimes it is a much more difficult price to pay, for example, asking young people to think about tomorrow rather than the present, or asking a mother to go to a faraway health post to vaccinate her baby. • • Social campaigns generally address power relationships. For example, in the case of violence against women, the hierarchical relationship between men and women is being questioned. It is not just about whether to buy a product or not. It is about accepting a new relationship of power in which, generally, the one who holds power has a lot to lose. • • Product advertising campaigns generally offer things or services that are already wanted. Social campaigns often try to‘sell’ something that is not only not wanted, but is often rejected, for example, using a condom or wearing a seat belt. 86 Solomon, D. S.(1989). A Social Marketing Perspective on Communication Campaigns. In R. E. Rice& Charles K. Atkin(Eds.), Public Communication Campaigns(pp. 87–104). California: SAGE Publications, Inc. 87 Murphy, P.(2002). Ethics in Social Marketing. Journal of Public Policy& Marketing, 21(Spring), pp. 168-70. 30

CHAPTER FOUR • • There are some cases where a‘too positive’ effect of the campaign may be negative because there is no capacity to respond to the demand. For example, if a contraceptive campaign is implemented under the consideration that the public health infrastructure can only cover 20% of the population, it would pose a difficult challenge if 50% of the population demands it because the other 30% would be dissatisfied and the source would completely lose its credibility. When campaigns that encourage women to report violence perpetrated by men are heeded and women actually report their abuse, this action may make the situation even more difficult for them(for example, the reported men may kick them out of their homes, may become even more violent towards them for reporting it, or may take away their children). As a result, these women might feel let down by the campaign and the organisation, making it very difficult for them to be willing to listen to the organisation again, given the risk involved. In other words, the organisation is at risk of losing credibility with its audience and generating consequences out of its control. 4.1.1 The 5 Ps of social marketing Social marketing strategies are built around five central elements, which should be considered when designing communication campaigns and when thinking about how to design messages for mass media: 1. Product This is the element around which the transaction between audience and organisation occurs. The product does not always have a material presence, although a tangible product has sometimes been used. For example, a campaign to quit smoking that also promotes a nicotine patch. Both the core product and the material product of a campaign must be defined. For example: 1. A better quality of family life= core product. The core product is always defined in terms of the client. It is important to be clear about what is being offered to the target population because that is what will drive them to listen to the message. Ask yourself: Why should the audience listen to me? What am I offering? The answer is the core product. 2. Use of contraceptives= material product. This is the specific product that the audience is asked to adopt. In other words, it is being suggested to the audience that if they adopt the material product, they will obtain the core product. 2. Price The key here is to calculate the price being asked of the audience. It will not always be a price in monetary terms. It may be a price in terms of time(recycling), effort(daily exercise), a cultural price(leaving behind the image of uniformity and accepting cultural diversity), or psychological(the alcoholic who loses confidence without more alcohol consumption). In cases where the promoted behaviour might trigger risks for the audience member, campaign managers must offer an alternative to ease that burden. For example, a person who is asked to denounce harassment after being discriminated against might need to face the offending party and, potentially, suffer retaliation. The campaign could offer these individuals support to ensure that they are not alone by providing the services of a lawyer to accompany them through the process. 31

CHAPTER FOUR 3. Position This element is critical in cases where the campaign includes a specific physical product. The product needs to be strategically placed and distribution channels established by the time the audience begins to look for it. For example, if the campaign promises women that they can control their fertility with the use of the contraceptive pill, they need to have easy access to the pill on a regular basis. In order to ensure such access, the organisation must establish distribution channels will function month after month, and year after year. To this end, planning and design should include self-sustainability strategies, for example, that distribution channels become self-financed by a certain point in time. Organisations conducting social marketing strategies have two main responsibilities: 1. To understand the needs of the population with which they are working; in other words, to know their target audiences well; and 2. To identify or create the conditions for this target population to decide whether or not to align itself with the message proposed by the organisation through its campaigns. 4. Promotion Promotion is a matter of reaching the appropriate audience, with the appropriate message, at the appropriate time. For example, if it is decided that the message should be disseminated by the mainstream media, which media are going to be used? In which programme should the message be included? At what time of the day? In order to answer these questions, one must once again get to know the target audience. What are their tastes, how do they generally use their free time, what are their cultural codes, what are the narrative genres they prefer, etc. Once a decision about preferred media has been made, other matters arise: In which programme should the message be included? At what time of the day? When is the target population in contact with the media? What shows do they prefer? 5. Psychological position This refers to the place that the issue, action or tool your organisation is working on occupies in the mind of the target audience as compared to other actions or tools. For example, according to how the audience responds to the following questions about ethnic discrimination, in a particular context, you could determine how well positioned this issue is in their minds and in their potential actions. 1. Would you allow ethnic discrimination? 2. Would you confront discriminatory behaviour? 3. Would you report discriminatory behaviour? 4. Would you contact with human rights organisations to advocate against discrimination? 32

CHAPTER FOUR For the implementation of a social marketing plan to be successful, Zambrana 88 recommends: 1. Having a clear definition of the responsibilities of those working on the programme, defining who, why, and when to act in the different stages. 2. Carefully describing the tasks to be performed and the time in which they should be completed. 3. Paying attention to all the details of the programme – not taking anything for granted or considering anything obvious. 4. Doing a proper follow-up of what needs to be done to make sure it is done in the allocated time. 5. Drawing up a calendar with the activities of the campaign. 4.2 ENTERTAINMENT-EDUCATION Entertainment-education(E-E) is a communication strategy aimed at promoting social and behaviour changes. 89 It is defined as a process through which entertaining and educative messages are designed simultaneously, usually while seeking to influence knowledge, social norms, and behaviours with regard to an issue or problem. 90 It can contribute to social change in two ways: by affecting individual change in awareness, attitudes and behaviours; or by influencing the environment in order to generate conditions for change. E-E has been extensively applied in the communication for development field. Although initially used as a strategy in developing countries with television programmes or radio dramas focused on health issues – it was originally implemented in Mexico in the 1970s with topics such as family planning, sexual behaviour and general health. 91 Today it is used all over the world for multiple topics. 92 E-E strategies involve music, theatre, dance, art, written formats and graphics, and digital platforms. E-E relies on socio-psychological theories, such as Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. This theoretical perspective states that individuals can learn by following other people as role models. This implies that under their influence, and by imitation, the audience can adopt desired behaviours. Based on the persuasive effect of the media,‘this process depends on the existence of role models in the messages: good models, bad models, and those who transition from bad to good’. 93 4.2.1 Three generations of entertainment-education Despite starting from a perspective of the dominant paradigm, E-E represents three generations in parallel existence, each one of them with different objectives and approaches. First generation: Social marketing Under this conception, soap operas play an educational role as disseminators of information, as well as instruments for awareness-raising that would finally lead to achieving a change in behaviour. 94 Supported by social marketing strategies, this generation of E-E sees social problems from the perspective of a lack of information; therefore, it is focused on increasing knowledge to ensure individual behaviour changes. 88 Zambrana, M. J.(2012). Marketing Social Aplicación Práctica: Editorial IEPALA y Librería Tercer Mundo. Madrid: Universidad de Complutense de Madrid. 89 Singhal, A., Cody, M. J., Rogers, E. M.& Sabido, M.(2004). Entertainment-education and social change: History, research, and practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 90 Singhal, A.& Rogers, E.M.(1999). Entertainment-Education: A communication strategy for social change. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 91 Waisbord, S.(2001). Op. cit. 92 Arroyave, J.(2008). Testing the effectiveness of an entertainment-education health- focused soap opera: exposure and post-discussion in Colombian young adults. Investigación& Desarrollo, 16(2), pp. 232-261. 93 Waisbord, S.(2001). Op. cit. 94 Tufte, T.(2005). Entertainment-education in development communication: Between marketing behaviors and empowering people. In O. Hemer and T. Tufte,(Eds.), Media and Glocal Change: Rethinking Communication for Development(pp. 159-176). Buenos Aires: CLACSO. 33

CHAPTER FOUR Second generation: Connecting paradigms Examples of first generation E-E demonstrated that using marketing exclusively for individual change could, in some cases have a very limited scope. Therefore, several initiatives have applied broader perspectives to address the complexity of social and development issues. These perspectives involve participatory approaches, 95 without dismissing social marketing, the effect on individual change, or the foundations of social learning theory. Third generation: Empowerment and structural change The third generation of E-E has transcended the debate of diffusion strategies versus participation. It is focused on‘problem identification, social critique and articulation of debate, challenging power relations and advocating social change’. 96 This perspective acknowledges that lack of knowledge or information was not the main problem, but rather the inequities and structural issues affecting society in general. In this sense, it focuses not only on promoting individual changes but also on broader dialogue and debate for social change. 4.2.2 Entertainment-education formats An E-E strategy may have a local scope, which focuses on a specific problem as well as a national or international scope, which speaks to wider audiences. For each case, it is necessary to know what media are consumed or available to the targeted public, as well as the most appropriate formats to convey the strategy’s core messages. 97 Although there are numerous media and formats available, some of the most frequent ones are explained below. Audio-visual formats • • Television: This is a popular media format for E-E strategies. Television can reach large audiences, especially during prime-time viewing. In this case, drama is one of the most widely used formats because both individual and social changes can be promoted by the emotions evoked by stories. From the experience of Soul City in South Africa, using characters that inspire audience identification in a drama series or soap opera can‘stimulate dialogue and debate, create empathy, motivate reflection on decisions, challenge social norms and values, and stimulate action’. 98 However, one of the limitations of this format is the high cost of production. • • Video: Shorter formats can complement the messages conveyed in long-term formats. They can be very useful tools for reproducing and generating dialogue in different spaces. Some strategies have produced DVDs or CDs with TV programmes, videos and other formats to be used in classrooms, for example. • • Radio: Working with community radios has proved to be useful for E-E strategies based on serial radio dramas, both in Africa and Latin America. One of the advantages of this format is that it can approach topics of local interest, while opening the door for dialogue and debate with the target audience. Additionally, compared to television, production costs are relatively lower. • • Cinema: This format has also been used in several countries. Whether short films or feature films, cinema is characterised by being self-contained: a story that begins and ends with each screening. Movies can be broadcast on television, in movie theatres, as well as in open or closed community settings. In recent years, YouTube and Vimeo have become important platforms to upload and view productions in this format. However, its use is limited by high production costs associated with the specialised equipment required for this type of production. 95 Tufte, T.(2005). Op. cit. p. 164. 96 Tufte, T.(2005). Op. cit. p. 165. 97 Perlman, H.(2013). Edutainment: Using stories and media for social action and behavior change. South Africa: Soul City Institute. 98 Perlman, H.(2013). Op. cit. p. 66. 34

CHAPTER FOUR • • Digital platforms: Over the past few years, social media and SMS platforms have been leveraged to reach large audiences through E-E products. For instance, web series and E-E short films are being used to engage specific audiences. These are also used to support service providers and community health workers and to facilitate community-based interpersonal communication and counselling. Print media Print media may include newspapers, magazines, comics, short story books, pamphlets and flyers. 99 In many cases, they are used in addition to content distributed through other media formats. For example, comic books, through their combination of words with images, may be more appropriate for people with lower levels of education than other formats. Likewise, the inclusion of photographs in stories in which people find themselves and their realities depicted can help people to identify with the characters and content of the stories. Live performances This type of format is advantageous because it can address problems and issues that exist in the community, and it is accessible to people or populations with low levels of education. It also facilitates interaction with the audiences so that there can be dialogue and a subsequent debate on the issues of interest. Theatre, dance and puppet shows are some of the media included in this format. Other formats • • Games: Different types of games have been used, not only for development issues but also for education on other topics, such as developing entrepreneurship or management skills. In the field of E-E for purposes of social change, games could be used to reiterate messages through questions or quizzes after the relevant material has been reviewed. • • Music and dance: Combining educational content or messages with relatable cultural elements (such as music and dance) has the potential to reach certain audiences effectively. These performances may be presented live, on television, radio, or social media. • • Social media: Despite some questions about their role in E-E strategies, social media represent an opportunity for the dissemination of information, as well as the generation of interaction and debate with the audience. They may be an extension of TV and radio shows, where audiences can comment, provide their opinion, and even create content. The use of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram or text messages may enhance the reach of messages and expand access to available information. In addition, the possibility of sharing videos on YouTube or WhatsApp has increased the relevance of these platforms as audio-visual channels. Another element to consider in terms of formats is the tendency to create multimedia content and processes. This is a powerful way to reach more diverse audiences because each format complements the other and should be used to achieve different goals. For example, a television series may have complementary material in print format for use at schools, as well as being available on social media for young people to interact with on their mobile phones. In India, for instance, UNICEF implemented a large-scale five-year E-E initiative, where content from a TV drama was repackaged to be used for community-based dialogue, with social media engagement. 99 Perlman, H.(2013). Op. cit. p. 69. 35

CHAPTER FOUR 4.3.3 Example E-E strategies demand rigorous and evidence-based processes to test materials, monitor their use, and evaluate the strategy’s impact. This is what makes E-E different from fiction dramas that exclusively seek to entertain. Revela2, a Colombian entertainment-education series, illustrates the process followed to validate decisions taken during the design phase, as shown below. Figure 8: Revela2 Validation Process VALIDATION DESIGN FOR EACH SEASON Identification of main themes(official data, specialised literature, institutional policies) Consult and validation with key actors: partners Message document Message design workshop Validation with partners [...] What I think of all the characters...it could be that when Camila was drunk....Maybe her... maybe he didn’t rape her[Maybe she wanted it?] Yes, maybe she wanted it to happen...Eduardo shouldn’t have done that because he didn’t consider her conditions at the moment[...] Adolescents Message document Creative Workshop Detail design of the series Arch and Characters Magazine sections Final script version Consult with public actors [...] Well, on the subject of HIV, eh... there was a message stating that stigma and discrimination against people living with HIV or AIDS will decrease, right? Well, that is not realistic because in this society it is very hard to accept this type of people as they are[...] Adolescents [...] In the first video they expressed what they were thinking; in the second one [Sexafío], instead, I could tell that they had prepared something to say[...] Adolescents [...] One of the messages I identified was one about mythification. Let me explain myself: in episode 18 there was a case of a girl that got pregnant. She thought that by using a double condom she would be protected from getting pregnant. That is a myth that could be linked to the idea of using another contraceptive method along with condoms, including pills and implants, among others[...] Regarding the content included in the guides, a teacher states that[...] they like them a lot, particularly a survey used for the teachers to make a selfexamination, it’s a very practical tool[...] (UA, ES): the guides help me to develop every aspect of my class[...](UA, ES). Specifically regarding the content of the guides[...] it is very practical, very didactic, simple in the words being used [...] Teachers Final script version Making the products • • Fiction • • Program sections • • Guides Partners Public actors Final Edition [...] You do it very well because they are not the typical boring and serious anchor that makes everything look theoretical; they are fun[...] [...] Some people do not ask for the test, they do not go to the doctor to get their tests, but we realised that we need help from people with specialised knowledge [...] [...] Realising that we can get information at the hospital, that maybe we get condoms, contraceptives pills...we didn’t know anything about that[...] [...] I think it was interesting, because we get to see how people think, not only people from here or from Bogota, but from everywhere in Colombia, what people from Santa Marta think, for example. All of them have opinions and a particular point of view[...] Adolescents Source: Vega, J.(2016) T he validation and evaluation process of the platform Revela2: From all positions. Presentation at the International SBCC Summit 36 2016. Retrieved June 05, 2019, from http://www.comminit.com/unicef/content/validation-and-evaluation-process-platform-revela2-all-positions.

CHAPTER FOUR In the development stage, the Revela2 platform follows the following process: 1. Based on the results of formative research, a document is created with the main messages that the strategy intends to convey. 2. This message brief goes through a validation and consultation process with key stakeholders such as partners and target audiences. A final message brief is then elaborated with the results of their input. 3. The next step is a creative workshop to design the details of the products that will accompany the strategy. In the case of television products, the narrative arch and profiles of the characters are created, as well as a first version of the script. 4. Characters and script are validated again with target audiences, and a final version of the script is drafted with the results obtained from this cycle. A first pilot or samples of the products are elaborated and later validated for their final version. Only then are they considered ready for distribution. 4.3 SOCIAL MOBILISATION Social mobilisation brings together cross-sectoral allies in order to raise people’s awareness and critical thinking on development issues. In this, the community is not only made up of heads of households and urban leaders, but also extends to political leaders, community and religious leaders, environmentalists, NGOs, social clubs, journalists, filmmakers and artists, among others. 100 Bringing together these allies helps to provide resources and services, and increases community participation to ensure the sustainability of a programme or intervention. 101 Social mobilisation is a mutually beneficial process, in which communities and stakeholders are aware of the advantages of their participation. The aim of this strategy is that the decision-making processes of governments and lead organisations become less centralised, while local stakeholders increasingly gain decision-making power. Social mobilisation requires the following: 4.3.1 Formulate a vision A vision is a desirable and possible representation of the future, aimed at building social mobilisation. In order to mobilise, it is necessary to define an attractive horizon. One of the basic roles of communication is to formulate objectives and goals in a way that is attractive to the target audiences and provokes their involvement. 4.3.2 Define the participants’ and partners’ field of action When an attractive vision is formulated or proposed, people may be willing to participate if they find answers to the following questions: How can I participate, here, in my field of work, in what I do every day? That is: What do I need to know(comprehension)? What should I do(actions)? How can I do it (instruments)? And which decisions should I take? Many proposals for change fail because actions and decisions are proposed to stakeholders that are outside their specific fields of action and decision-making power. Mobilisation efforts should focus on the actions and decisions that are within the participants’/partners’ scope of work, and explain why and how they can contribute to the expected change. 100 Parks, W.& Lloyd, L.(2004). Op. cit. 101 McKee, N.(1993). S ocial mobilisation and social marketing in developing communities: lessons for communicators. Penang: Southbound. 37

CHAPTER FOUR 4.3.3 Collective action Collective action means having communal or mutual certainty, knowing that what I do and decide, in my field of action and work, is being done and decided by many others for the same reasons and purposes. This is what gives stability to the mobilisation and can turn it into a process of change. Participatory mobilisation, at a macro level, does not require people to be together physically or to know each other personally. What is required is to know and share meaning and interpretation – that is, to have collective certainty. If each of the stakeholders involved in a project has the certainty that many other people are doing the same thing and pursuing the same purpose, the process has been made collective. Communication plays a fundamental unifying role in the process of collective action. 4.4 MEDIA ADVOCACY Media advocacy is the strategic use of mass media(such as TV, radio and newspapers) to generate community support for social change initiatives. Communication has become a strategic dimension of development due to the influence that the mass media has, both on communities and on decision-makers responsible for formulating policies and allocating resources. Thus, when it comes to promoting processes of production and exchange that enable transformations towards a better life, it is highly desirable to have the media as allies. 102 Therefore, it can be said that: Media advocacy is the process of disseminating information through the communication media (either earned or paid) where the aim is to effect action, a change of policy, or to alter the public’s view of an issue. Earned media coverage is not paid for and has the greatest chance of success when advocates are able to interest media in a story because it is newsworthy. Paid media is when advocates pay for an advertisement or story to run in a specific outlet, at a specific time, to reach a target audience.(p. 39) 103 Media advocacy thus contributes to the generation of change from within communities by strengthening and empowering its members to implement actions aimed at gaining the commitment of governments, policy support, systemic endorsement and social acceptance for particular programmes or goals. 104 Further, the media is an essential actor in development actions as it circulates different points of view and interpretations of social issues that ultimately shape public interest. Communication actions that identify with this purpose must take up the challenge of intervening in this scenario to facilitate public dialogue, give voice to those who do not have it, and assure the prevalence of actions that seek the common good. 4.4.1 Participation Media advocacy is aimed at activating the participation of journalists and the media in: 1. Convening and mobilising sectors, social groups and communities for their support and/or pursuit of objectives and goals that are in line with those of the strategy being implemented; 2. Collective actions and social agreements that favour the participation of different key actors; 102 UNICEF.(2006). Abogacía en medios y movilización social. Cuadernillo n° 6. Buenos Aires: Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia. 103 Lane, C.& Carter, M.(2013). El papel de abogar en los medios de comunicación para la promoción de políticas de control del tabaco. In L. Reynales, J. Thrasher, E. Lazcano& M. Hernández(Eds.), Políticas para el control del tabaco en México(1st ed.). pp. 129-134. Cuernavaca: Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. 104 González, J.(2002). Educación, movilización social y abogacía para promover la salud. Medical Journal of Uruguay, 18(3), pp. 192-197. 38

CHAPTER FOUR 3. Creating conditions that enable the expression of minority sectors(indigenous, migrants) or sectors commonly ignored by the media; and 4. Symbolic elaboration of meanings coming from minority sectors so that they can compete with other symbolic universes in society. 105 Media advocacy requires planning with clear and concrete goals and objectives to guide the whole process. Optimally, it would be useful to carry out media advocacy planning in a group setting because, in this way, many more ideas can emerge. 4.4.2 Considerations Although there is no specific planning format, it is important to consider the following: 106 1. Preparing the organisation: The organisation should designate a person responsible for contacting the media and journalists, in order to establish fluid channels of communication. It is also advisable that the organisation appoint a spokesperson who can maintain a consistent and coherent position with the media and provide truthful and timely information. 2. Purpose identification: Having a clear idea of why an advocacy strategy is required is the starting point. It is necessary to answer questions such as: What is the media going to be used for? Does the advocacy strategy intend to get support from the media to achieve the goals of a particular project, or the goals and purposes of the organisation in general? Is it focused on informing the public about events, or is there a deeper interest for getting community members involved in the topics being promoted with said event? Is there interest in changing or creating new policies? Does it intend to expose opponents or to denounce something? 3. Selecting a target audience: In order to be able to establish what type of media support is required, it is first necessary to identify which specific audiences one intends to mobilise. 4. Developing a plan: In addition to the elements mentioned above, the advocacy plan should include a list of which media, journalists and communicators will be involved and how they will be approached. It is important to plan how the information will be presented to them so that public interests beyond those specific to the organisation can be made evident. A plan may include visits to the media, press releases, breakfast meetings, or even public events that attract media attention. Taking into account the predefined media timeframes(editorial meetings, deadlines) specific to each media, it is important to elaborate in detail how each media will be reached, including activities, timeframes, etc. 5. Flexible implementation: Implementing the activities commitments according to the previously elaborated timeline is important, however, flexibility is also recommended. Information agendas may have to be altered due to extenuating circumstances in which case it may be preferable to wait for the best time to present the information through the media, always monitoring the direction of the purpose with which the information was created and which media are most pertinent to continue the advocacy work. 4.4.3 Communication with the media Approaching the media can be very beneficial in the following cases: 1. When announcing a new project; 2. When there is information of common interest; and 3. When a matter has become critical, but few people know of it(i.e. when media participation can make the difference between accepting or rejecting an initiative). 105 UNICEF.(2006). Op. cit. 106 University of Kansas. Working Group on Community Health and Development(2013). Community Toolbox. Retrieved May 06, 2019, from University of Kansas: https://ctb.ku.edu/es/tabla-de-contenidos/abogacia/principios-de-abogacia/plan-de-abogacia/principal. 39

CHAPTER FOUR When working with the media to pursue their advocacy, it is important that organisations: 1. Establish personal relationships based on respect. 2. Provide the media with the necessary material for them to do their job well.(Here, honesty, precision, and information about particular interests regarding the subject you seek to promote are essential elements for the relationship with the media to flow.) 3. Clearly state what is requested from the media, and state the reasons for promoting a particular initiative. 4. Shape the debate when reporting through the media, not only by presenting the issue clearly, but also the proposed solution. 5. Ensure that political actors know the subject and understand its implications.(Pressure can be exerted through the media, creating a demand for change from political stakeholders. This whole process takes time and requires perseverance and consistency.) 6. Through the media, access different channels to disseminate information on a particular initiative, such as the news, public service announcements, press releases, press conferences, and paid advertisements. 4.4.4 Communication with different stakeholders Involving different stakeholders in purposes that benefit the community is key to achieving required changes. For this reason, convening groups or organisations is essential. Here are some recommendations in this regard: 1. Establish relationships with individuals in charge, that is, specific people from each group or organisation linked to the initiative who will implement the plan. 2. Once the concrete goal to be achieved has been defined, it is necessary to clearly state the activity or activities that each person must implement, as well as the time needed to complete them. 3. Maintain an open, two-way communication process, as an exchange of information may not only be useful, but improve trust among stakeholders. 4.4.5 Communication with the opposition Identifying potential opponents to a particular initiative is as important as knowing one’s allies. Therefore, once you know who they are or could be, consider the following elements: 1. Identify among your allies those who have influence on the opposition, at least in terms of respect and credibility. 2. Analyse and anticipate the possible actions of the opposition that could put the final objective or some part of its process at risk. 3. Prepare potential responses to potential actions of the opposition. 4. Ensure that the opposition is fully aware of the issue you are advocating for, as well as its implications. 5. Make use of all the available tools that can give greater justification to the demands that you are presenting, for example, scientific evidence. 4.5 CIVIC JOURNALISM Civic journalism is a strategy based on the idea that journalism is not only meant to inform. Through face-to-face meetings, civic journalism proposes a relationship between the media and their audiences, in which the citizens’ viewpoints are taken into consideration to create news agendas. It seeks to provide tools to facilitate participation, so that issues important to citizens can find channels for action through the information and public deliberation provided by the media. 40

CHAPTER FOUR This strategy is based on the consideration of the media as platforms for public debate, from where it is possible to strengthen the deliberative capacity of citizens. Civic journalism helps to shape the public sphere and to orient the citizen towards a socio-political understanding of an issue and its implications; it thereby facilitates participatory democracy. For this reason, it cannot be considered as a strategy to attract audiences, but rather as a tool to capacitate the citizen. Civic journalism is based on the assumption that sound information is vital for democracy, but information itself is not sufficient to energise public debates: citizens must be questioned in order for them to participate. Initiatives of civic journalism identify topics of public interest through surveys, focus groups, or panels of citizens interested in working with editors and journalists to establish information priorities and approaches for journalistic projects, which put the citizen’s point of view at the centre of stories. Civic journalism does not favour a particular interest or solution. Journalists are not going to solve major social problems, but they can contribute to the solution by showing paths to action which can generate social transformations. If it brings citizens and/or decision-makers to action, it is an important result. A prerequisite to advancing public discussion and debate is an environment that allows for freedom of expression; civic journalism cannot function in a climate of repression or censorship. 4.6 MECHANISMS FOR BUILDING CONSENSUS AND DECISIONS The need to generate mechanisms to build consensus is based on the reality that asymmetry is inherent in any negotiation process. Not all actors involved enjoy the same possibilities to effectively participate in, and influence, decision-making. That is, to present their point of view, render it valid, and ensure that it is heard and recognised. This can be expressed in the following dimensions of negotiation processes: • • Asymmetry in willingness to participate: 107 This has to do with an individual’s conscious decision to take part in a process or not. In order for the intervention of a person in the decision-making process to be effective, he or she must show a conscious willingness to participate. • • Asymmetry in knowledge of the rules of the game: 108 This asymmetry occurs when not all participants know and understand the rules of the game in the same way. Not knowing the scope and limitations of their participation will restrict their ability to manoeuvre within the negotiation process and to effectively influence the course of decisions. • • Asymmetry in how knowledge is valued: This occurs when different levels of knowledge about the topics of negotiation are not valued in the same way. Knowledge here, does not only refer to mere information, but also to an appreciation for the social and cultural contexts attached to knowledge. This can happen when, for example, different values are assigned to technical knowledge in relation to popular knowledge. • • Asymmetry in information: There is asymmetry in information when participants do not all have sufficient, clear and relevant information on the issues at stake. • • Asymmetry in negotiation skills: 109 This occurs when participants do not have a common awareness of, and ability to, apply the normative skills, attributes and behaviours that are associated with successful participation in the process of consensus-building. • • Asymmetry in the locus of control : 110 This is expressed as the perceived ability to influence changes in the negotiation process. When anyone involved in a negotiation process believes that they are not capable of affecting decisions or making changes, they are at a disadvantage in the decision-making scenario. Therefore, it is important that all subjects are encouraged to perceive themselves as agents of change. 107 Brett, E.(1993). Participation Why& When? The cost and benefits of democratic processes. Development Studies Institute. Unpublished document. London School of Economics. London. 108 Brett, E.(1993). Op. cit. p. 109 Annan, K.(1999). United Nations. Washington D.C. 110 McCombs, B.& Marzaño, R.(1998). What is the role of the will component? In C.E. Weinstein& B.L. McCombs(Eds.), Strategic learning: The merging of skill, will, and self-regulation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 41

CHAPTER FOUR Structural asymmetries, i.e. asymmetries in power relations, are normal in the mediation process of any negotiation, they occur prior to the negotiation scenario and permeate the whole process. They are the result of historical, social and ideological factors that together determine the conditions under which each person participates in the negotiation process. These asymmetries set how the rules of the game are made, how knowledge is valued, and information shared. They are therefore not at all neutral because they are conceived according to the particular interests of each stakeholder and in such a way that dominant positions of power remain intact, both in the process of negotiation and in the results of decision-making. Such a position, of course, affects the willingness to participate, the locus of control, and the negotiating capacities of the other participants. Although structural asymmetry makes it impossible to generate a specific course of action in the process of consensus-building, there is room to affect the various dimensions of the negotiation process listed above and thereby reduce structural asymmetries. In addition, it is necessary to consider the problem of the legitimacy of stakeholders in terms of who represents whom in consensus-building and the decision-making processes. To this end, it is necessary to develop prior mechanisms that guarantee their legitimacy, such as choosing representatives by majority vote, and establishing communication processes that guarantee feedback between the representatives and those they represent. 4.7 DIGITAL MEDIA Since the rise of the internet in the 1990s, the field of communication has become even broader and more complex. Consequently, it is more participatory, with an interconnected population gaining access to information, as well as‘more opportunities to get involved in public debates, and an enhanced ability to undertake collective action’. 111 According to Shirky, social media have become tools for the coordination of almost all political world movements, which is why many authoritarian, and some democratic, governments want to limit access to them. In this sense, the best way to see social media in response to an instrumental view of them is‘as long-term tools that can strengthen civil society and the public sphere’. 112 Before social media existed, mass communication was usually unidirectional and aimed at a broad audience, perhaps interactive, but private in nature. With new technologies, individuals can choose between different types of audiences and levels of interaction, giving them more control over their own representations by different audiences. 113 Social media such as Twitter, YouTube, Facebook and Instagram serve to facilitate relationships with audiences, as well as the involvement of audiences. Some of their well-known advantages include the speed and immediacy of information sharing among social actors, the availability of cooperation tools to promote joint actions(i.e. campaigns to promote relevant messages/issues), receptivity to dialogue, and drawing attention to issues that could be ignored by, or may not be so quickly visible through, the mass media. 114 One of the most discussed roles of social media is their active role in political and social movements around the world. Since December 2010, with the Arab Spring, this role has been studied in different revolutions. In the case of Egypt, activists used Facebook groups, blogs, and Twitter to start discussions and debates on the political situation and Mubarak’s regime. 115 There is no doubt that they contributed locally and helped attract international attention to information that would otherwise have been hidden from the public eye. But since the victory of the revolution in several Arab countries, the power of social media has also been overstated. In light of this, there is a growing body of research that seeks to frame a more realistic interpretation of social media as a tool for political mobilisation and action in contexts like this. 111 Gordon, A.(2005). Op. cit. 112 Shirky, C.(2011). The political power of social media: Technology, the public sphere, and political change. Foreign affairs, 90(1), pp. 28-41. 113 Haynes, N.(2016). Social Media in Northern Chile. London: UCL Press.(p. 224). 114 Guo, C.& Saxton, G.D.(2014). Tweeting Social Change: How Social Media Are Changing Nonprofit Advocacy. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 43(1), pp. 57-79. 115 Eltantawy, N.& Wiest, J. B.(2011). The Arab Spring| Social media in the Egyptian revolution: reconsidering resource mobilisation theory. 42 International Journal of Communication, 5, pp. 1207–1224.

CHAPTER FOUR It should be noted that this mobilisation usually requires a combination of classic media – press and television – and new technologies, as well as an interaction between online and offline communication. 116 Emiliano Treré, for example, has studied how to demystify the role of social media and its power to mobilise in different cases around the world. In his conclusions, he insists that social media are controlled by political forces in which traditional parties also participate with their tricks in the digital sphere. Therefore, the contributions of these media to activism and resistance should be carefully analysed, considering all the nuances of these manifestations of communication and power. 117 These two trends, one with a positive view on the role of social media and the other with a more sceptical view, should lead to studies that consider the power of these forms of media in political activism from different perspectives. To this end, some authors propose the comparative approach, which emphasises the political, social and economic impact of the media on collective action, i.e. from a contextual point of view. 118 Accordingly, social media are important tools for protest as long as there is access to them and motivation. Thus, the political context is relevant from the beginning until the end of this type of revolution, and the role of social media varies depending on the social reality. 4.8 COMMUNITY COMMUNICATION AND CITIZEN MEDIA According to Chantal Mouffe, individuals who are members of a society must be able to make decisions, have a position on the issues that affect them and be able to use those positions to transform their context. 119 Mass media can provide the public space for individuals to act upon relevant issues. This is what Hannah Arendt 120 calls open public spaces, where people can freely discuss topics of interest. In this context, community media have gained relevance since the early 1970s in their goal of achieving ‘a communication committed to social movements and criticism of the prevailing society’. 121 Different experiences in the area of community media have sought the transformation of individuals, as well as the empowerment of communities. Although they can have different names – alternative, participatory, community, popular, autonomous 122 – this Manual uses the definition of community media conceptualised by Clemencia Rodriguez as‘the alternative, community, or radical media that facilitate, trigger, and maintain processes of citizenshipbuilding’. 123 Rodriguez states that this type of media can catalyse identity-building processes rooted in the local context through communication, and from there, they can also propose different visions of the future. The community media can impact on individuals’ identities and assist them to grow into their full role as citizens by providing an alternative to the large-scale media that build – in their opinion – stereotypes that do not account for their real characteristics’. 124 There are several examples of community media working in this direction, including the Radio Minera stations in Bolivia, which have not only been self-sustaining, but have also supported processes of identification and dialogue with the trade unions of this sector, 125 and Radio Afghanistan, a radio station that has managed to generate social impact for over 25 years in an area of conflict and violence, thanks to radio dramas. 126 In 116 Treré, E.& Barranquero, A.(2013). De mitos y sublimes digitales: movimientos sociales y tecnologías de la comunicación desde una perspectiva histórica. Redes.com Revista de Estudios para el Desarrollo Social de la Comunicación, 8, pp. 27-47. 117 Treré, E.(2015). The Struggle Within: discord, conflict and paranoia in social media protest. Critical Approaches to Social Media Protest. In Dencik, L. and Leistert, O.,(Eds.) Critical perspectives on social media and protest: between control and emancipation.(pp. 136-180). London: Rowman& Littlefield International. 118 Wolfsfeld, G., Segev, E.& Sheafer, T.(2013). Social media and the Arab Spring: Politics comes first. The International Journal of Press/ Politics, 18(2), pp. 115-137. 119 Mouffe, C.(1997). Liberalismo, pluralismo y ciudadanía democrática. México: Instituto Federal Electoral. 120 Arendt, H.(1958). La condición humana. Barcelona: Paidos. 121 García Morales, M.(2006). Medios ciudadanos y comunitarios en América Latina. Bogotá: Centro de competencia de comunicación para América Latina. 122 Ferron, Benjamin.(2006). Les Médias Alternatifs:‘Contre-culture’ ou‘Sous-culture’? Les Luttes de(Dé)légitimation de la Communication Contestataire à Travers l’Etude de Publications Académiques et Militantes. Unpublished paper. 123 Rodríguez, C.(2009). De medios alternativos a medios ciudadanos: trayectoria teórica de un término. Folios, 21-22,(pp. 13-25). 124 Cabalin, C.(2010). Democracia y Comunicación: un lugar para los medios comunitarios. F@ro: revista teórica del Departamento de Ciencias de la Comunicación, 11. 125 Gumucio-Dagron, A.(2005). Miners’ Radio Stations. A Unique Communication Experience from Bolivia. In O. Hemer and T. Tufte,(Eds.), Media and Glocal Change: Rethinking Communication for Development(pp. 317-324). Buenos Aires: CLACSO. 43 Change: Rethinking Communication for Development(pp. 349-366). Buenos Aires: CLACSO. 126 Gordon, A.(2005). Radio in Afghanistan: Socially useful communications in wartime. In O. Hemer and T. Tufte,(Eds.), Media and Glocal

CHAPTER FOUR Colombia, experiences such as the Montes de Maria Communication Collective and public media projects in Belen de los Andaquies stand out: their experiences were compiled by Clemencia Rodriguez and other authors in the book What We Are Stealing from War, in 2008. According to Rodriguez:‘In Colombia, community media went from being seen as mere instruments of mobilisation to being valued as communication spaces where – from a space of interaction – subjects take ownership of their future while speaking to the world on their own terms.’ 127 In the case of community media, it is difficult to speak of a step-by-step process because the stories that make up this type of media are specific, and they depend on the different processes taking place within the social organisations that lead them. In any case, community media become an asset when they are the product of the organisations themselves, built with their own logistic, economic and legal resources. These media range from community television and radio stations, to blogs or social media platforms managed by the communities. 127 Rodríguez, C.(Ed.).(2008). Lo que le Vamos Quitando a la Guerra: medios ciudadanos en contextos de conflicto armado en Colombia. Bogota: Centro de Competencia en Comunicación para América Latina, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. 44

CHAPTER FIVE CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH Research is a cross-cutting element in any communication for a development project. It is present from early stages or formative research , when research is conducted to obtain the largest possible amount of information about the issue in order to enhance the execution of the project. Research in the form of monitoring and follow-up during the implementation phase is also crucial, as it enables identification of adjustments necessary to reach project goals. Finally, conducting research during the results phase to verify that the goal has been reached and, at the same time, to formulate changes necessary to make it sustainable is also key. 5.1 REFERENCE FRAMEWORK FOR RESEARCH Institutions such as UN Women recommend establishing a framework to guide the monitoring and evaluation phase. This framework can play several roles: • • Assisting in the development of effective monitoring and evaluation plans and activities. • • Formulating short-, mid- and long-term measurable goals. • • Defining relationships between goals, activities, outputs, outcomes and impacts. • • Demonstrating how the activities of the strategy can lead to results and have an impact on the issue at hand. Conceptual and results frameworks are two basic tools for monitoring and evaluation purposes. 128 In order to build a sound conceptual framework, it is necessary to define a theory of change that will guide the strategy to generate the expected outcomes. This theory of change can be seen as a scheme through which the strategy operates in order to achieve the envisioned results. It should be formulated on the basis of an analysis of the dynamics and interactions between the multiple determinants that shape the desired behaviours of the targeted role-players. The Socio-Ecological Model provides one theoretical model for this analysis, and specifically considers these dynamics and interactions within the social ecology(-ies) at which the desired change must happen, e.g. personal, familial, community or national level. Applying other theoretical models can further strengthen an organisation’s understanding of how the desired change happens, which is also fundamental for the definition of a theory of change. If the expected change is located at the individual level, for example, the Theory of Planned Behaviour, 129 which includes predicting variables of behaviours such as attitude, subjective norm and intentions, would be useful. If the intended change is located at interpersonal and community levels, Paulo Freire’s Dialogic Theory looks at dialogue as a generator of awareness and connection within communities. At social and cultural levels, theories such as Agenda Setting show how the media contribute to positioning issues that are subject to debates at social levels, and suggest ways to influence them, similarly to gender and power theories that provide elements to explain how prevailing social norms relating to real or perceived differences between men and women can translate into unequal relationships of power between them. 128 UN Women(2013). Essential planning elements for the eradication of violence against women and girls. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/335-marcos-para-el-monitoreo-y- la-evaluacion-.html. 129 Ajzen, I.(1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2). pp. 179-211. 45

CHAPTER FIVE A basic scheme of theory of change should include the what , the how , and the why of that which it is intended to achieve: Figure 9: Theory of Change Example Inputs Financial, human and material resources used in a development intervention. How? Activities Actions undertaken by which inputs are mobilised in order to generate specific products. Results What do you want? Products Products, capital goods and services to be obtained from development interventions. Why? Effects Short- and mediumterm effects obtained from an intervention. Changes in development conditions. Results Impact Intentional or actual changes in human development measured in terms of people’s wellbeing. Improvements in peoples’ lives. Planning Implementation As an example, Soul City’s Theory of Change is synthesised in the following model: Figure 10: Soul City’s Theory of Social and Behaviour Change 130 Here, it is possible to see that results are expected at different levels of the Socio-Ecological Model (individual, community, and socio-political environments). In this case, change is expected to emerge as a result of the entertainment-education vehicle supported in advertising and marketing strategies. Forging partnerships as well as conducting audience- and expert-centred research are also highlighted as basic inputs in this Theory of Change. Similarly, the following Theory of Change developed by UNICEF illustrates the different changes expected at different levels of the Socio-ecological Model in the case of child marriage: 130 Soul City. Theory of social and behaviour change. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.comminit.com/hc3/content/soul-city’s-theorysocial-and-behaviour-change. 46

Figure 11: UNICEF C4D Pathways to Change for Ending Child Marriage Source: UNICEF’s Communication for Development Section, UNICEF New York, 2017 47 CHAPTER FIVE C4D DOMAINS FOR CHANGE Individual/family level • • Adolescent girls and boys • • Parents • • Significant others Community/public level • • Community leaders • • Religious leaders/FBOs • • Traditional chiefs • • Service organisations • • Women’s groups • • Youth groups Institutional level • • Managers • • Providers • • Practitioners in schools • • Health centres • • Social workers • • Media Policy/system • • National/subnational policy decision-makers • • Partners/donors C4D QUALITY STANDARDS (as per RAM indicators) (Knowledge, Awareness, Understanding, Beliefs, Values, Attitudes, Perceptions, Capacities, Motivation, Mobilisation, Action, Behaviour) C4D INTERVENTIONS SHORT-TERM CHANGE MEDIUM-TERM CHANGE LONG-TERM CHANGE • • C4D support to adolescent girl empowerment initiatives via in and out of school clubs • • C4D support to parenting education via PTAs, home visiting programmes, health centres, cash transfer programmes, etc. • • Demand creation for education, health and social welfare services • • Awareness of negative impact of CM on girls, family and society • • Increased awareness, self-efficacy/confidence and communication skills of girls enhanced to agitate for rights to services, opportunities and ending CM • • Increased HH dialogue on gender and& CM • • Increased girls/boys/parent role models on gender equity [‘positive deviants’] • • Increase in value of girls and women within HH, shift in role expectations and increased participation in HH decision-making • • Increased civic engagement and empowerment of girls BEHAVIOUR CHANGE • • Gender sensitive care-giving/parenting practices and gender equitable child socialisation • • Girls’ equal participation in services and development opportunities • • Improved engagement of girls and women in decision-making/leadership positions • • Mapping of CM reference group networks and communication patterns • • Regular community dialogue at scale • • Digital engagement via mobile phones for real-time perception data on CM to inform public dialogue • • TV and radio edu-tainment programmes and listener groups • • Participatory theatre • • Participatory video/mobile cinema • • Document/disseminate stories of change/ gender equity messaging via social media, music, celebrity PSAs, etc. • • Gender equity and ending CM as a recurring feature in public dialogue • • Key influencers aware of importance of education and participation opportunities for girls • • Community gate-keepers mobilised and capacitated to champion the cause of eliminating CM • • Strengthened community engagement in monitoring progress on elimination of CM • • Increased capacities of communities to selfreflect, self-analyse and self-mobilise • • Practice of CM questioned by communities and positive alternatives identified and promoted • • Community sense of responsibility and ownership for ending CM • • Public collective commitments/declarations denouncing CM • • Increased perception that majority are increased capacities of communities to selfreflect, self-analyse and self-mobilise SOCIAL CHANGE • • Reduction of stigma and discriminatory attitudes that exclude girls • • Girls valued as critical assets in society and social expectations for gender equity • • Removal of social rewards and increased public sanctions for CM • • Development of capacity-building modules for facilitators/producers • • Training and support for service providers and media networks • • Media appropriate messaging, development of extra-curricula support tools for schools • • Media awards to promote productions tackling gender norms • • Increased awareness, commitment and capacities of media to provide favourable programming content and air time • • Strengthened communication, inter-personal, participatory facilitation skills of social service providers and community outreach workers on framing gender issues and CM • • Increased acceptance/support for children/ girls engagement as agents of change • • Media saturation of positive deviance on gender equitable attitudes, practices and action examples from key influencer groups • • Gender equitable service providers publicly embraced • • Strengthened mechanisms for social accountability on gender equity and CM ACCESS & QUALITY • • Accessible, inclusive, equitable and quality services and provisions for girls • • Formative research to identify key determinants and primary influencers • • Tracking trends and packaging data to influence decision-makers e.g. policy/ programming briefs • • Advocacy with policy/decision-makers to disseminate data and facilitate dialogue/ consensus-building and TOC • • Increased policy-maker awareness of determinants, consequences of CM and cost benefits of investing in girls and SBCC for CM • • Increased awareness and commitment of policy-makers on programmatic options/ models for potential adoption/scaling options to address CM • • Public expressions of support for ending CM by political leaders • • Costed national SBCC strategy/plans on address CM • • Improved coordination of SBCC interventions on CM, improved evidence-based C4D • • Social and behavioural indicators included in national data systems ENABLING ENVIRONMENT • • Strengthened data systems to track changes on KAP for CM • • Adequately funded and coordinated national/ subnational SBCC plans with monitoring of quality C4D standards • • Local adoption and enforcement of policies and legislation protecting girls against CM • • Increased social, economic/political opportunities for girls Coordination for C4D Planning: Evidence generation on specific barriers, opportunities, influencers at each level of society, communication analysis of influencers and media environment to determine best channels and platforms for reach and engagement; capacity development of implementation partners, front line workers & media practitioners; engagement mechanisms; creative content design and dissemination; data monitoring and evaluation.

CHAPTER FIVE The results and strategic frameworks establish relationships across intermediate outcomes of the activities and the overall goals and targets. They show causal relations between programme goals and intermediate and final results. These frameworks form the basis for monitoring and evaluation activities. The following table is a basic guide from the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) on how to create a results framework: 131 Table 2: Basic Guide to Create a Results Framework Questions and general terminology Terms : Vision, target, goal, long-term effects, long-term results Questions such as : What are we trying to achieve? Why are we working on this problem? What is our general target? Terms : First positive result or immediate result, prerequisite short- and mediumterm results Questions such as : Where do we want to be in five years’ time? What are we trying to change more immediately? What do we need to have before we can reach our objectives and make an impact? Terms : Interventions, programmes Questions such as : What do we need to produce or provide by means of the programmes and projects in order to reach results in short and medium terms? What should each of the stakeholders provide? Terms : Actions Questions such as : What should be done to obtain these products? Terms : Measurement, performance measurement, performance standard Questions such as : How will we know whether or not we are on the right track to achieve what we have planned? Terms : Information sources, evidence Questions such as : What precise information do we need in order to measure our performance? How will we obtain this information? How much will it cost? Can we do a follow-up on the information? UNDP equivalent terminology Impact Outcome Product Activities Indicators Means of verification 5.2 FORMATIVE RESEARCH Formative research is the process of inquiry into the needs and characteristics of the target audience. It is considered the first step to establishing barriers and strengths to approach the issues at hand existing in local contexts, both of which are essential inputs to establish culturally appropriate messages, programme materials, tools and perspectives. This knowledge of the audience seeks to identify general characteristics such as demographic factors, possible networks, leaders and preferred communication channels, resources and gaps, as well as more specific aspects and variables of the topic to be addressed which may be based on a particular theoretical model(i.e. social learning theory if there’s interest in understanding how audiences learn from others). Reviewing existing data and information about the community and the specific issue at hand is always recommended. This data is usually available in institutional reports and bulletins, as well as other types of publications, including academic articles. In order to collect missing information, a process of formative research is structured around quantitative data collection techniques such as surveys, or qualitative techniques such as focus groups or interviews. Qualitative methods are commonly favoured due to the possibility of gaining deeper insights into the attitudes, habits and behaviours of the audience, existing barriers to behaviour change, as well as the channels through which they receive information. In this case, 48 131 UNDP.(2009). M anual de planificación, seguimiento y evaluación de los resultados de desarrollo. New York: UNDP

CHAPTER FIVE it would not be possible to make generalisations about the audience or to estimate proportions in relation to attitudes, beliefs or knowledge in the population, but it is possible to build a richer vision of the local context. Formative research is also known as‘initial diagnosis’ and is carried out through the following steps: Step 1: Identifying information needs The first step is usually to establish the barriers and opportunities impacting the ability to facilitate the desired change. These inputs are essential in order to establish a culturally appropriate communication strategy. This knowledge of the audience seeks to identify general characteristics such as demographic factors, possible networks, leaders and preferred communication channels, and resources. In order to identify these needs, it is important to have a theoretical model that has previously been used to understand variables and categories explaining the proposed changes. For example, The Theory of Reasoned Action proposes that any given behaviour can be explained by the information or the attitudes that people hold about it. In this case, the formative research phase will be focused on collecting existing information on the topic, assessing the quality of such information, the sources most frequently used to obtain it, as well as the attitudes towards the proposed behaviour. An example would be using condoms to prevent HIV infection. If this theory is applied, the use of condoms would be explained by the fact that a person knows what HIV is, can identify condoms as an effective way to prevent HIV transmission, and knows how or where to obtain them. It would also be important to know what the community’s attitudes are regarding the use of condoms, particularly proportion and frequency of use. This information will define the questions that will guide the formative research phase. Step 2: Collecting existing information and identifying information gaps It is very likely that some information has been previously collected on the different development issues that are to be addressed and their particular contexts. It is recommended to consider official statistics offered by the local and national government, as well as studies conducted by universities, including published articles, theses and dissertations. Additionally, it is worth consulting with NGOs and social organisations working on the topic of interest, as they may have unpublished reports that could be useful. 132 Step 3: Elaborating a methodological design Once existing information – also known as‘secondary information’ – has been collected and analysed, it is possible to determine which information gaps remain and which questions need to be answered through field research. Thus, the methodological design should include the audiences that are to be consulted, as well as the instruments that will be used to collect the necessary information. If the intervention is intended to establish the magnitude of a specific problem, a survey with closed-questions that will be statistically processed is recommended. This is commonly referred to as quantitative research. If, on the other hand, the intervention is focused on establishing what a situation means for individuals or a group and what their viewpoints on it are, then interviews or focus groups with open-ended questions that allow for a subsequent interpretation would be more pertinent. This is commonly referred to as qualitative research. After this, it is possible to establish the different procedures necessary to conduct this research. When the research processes are participatory, community members are involved in research design as well as data collection and analysis. 132 C-Change(Communication for Change).(2012). C-Modules: A Learning Package for Social and Behavior Change Communication. Practitioner’s Handbook. Module 1. Washington, DC: FHI 360/C-Change. Retrieved June 04, 2019, from https://www.c-changeprogram.org/ 49 sites/default/files/sbcc_module0_intro.pdf.

CHAPTER FIVE Table 3: Example of Research Design Research Needs Sample of questions/Preliminary questions for men and women: Ÿ Ÿ How many men and women are aware of the different mechanisms for citizen participation? Ÿ Ÿ What are your beliefs about the effectiveness of existing mechanisms of citizen participation? Ÿ Ÿ What prevents them from using these mechanisms of citizen participation? Ÿ Ÿ How many of them have ever raised the topic of citizen participation in their community meetings? Ÿ Ÿ How many of them have looked for information on mechanisms of citizen participation with experts or through official instances? Existing Research Institute of Public Health(IPH), Albanian Ministry of Health, Institute of Statistics(INSTAT), and Centres for Disease Control(CDC). 2005. Reproductive health survey, Albania 2002. Tirana, Albania: IPH, INSTAT and CDC. Available on: http://www.cdc.gov/ Reproductivehealth/Surveys/SurveyCountries. htm#Albania INSTAT, IPH and MEASURE DHS. 2009. Albania demographic and health survey 2008–09. Tirana, Albania: INSTAT, IPH and MEASURE DHS. PRÖ Shendetit. Two-pager: Knowledge and use of modern methods of contraception: 2002 and 2005. Tirana, Albania: PRÖ Shendetit. Sample of questions/Preliminary questions for public servants: Ÿ Ÿ What information are public servants providing about existing mechanisms of citizen participation? How precise is this information? Ÿ Ÿ What misconceptions are held by public servants about citizen participation? Ÿ Ÿ What incorrect information is provided by public servants to the general population? Ÿ Ÿ What incorrect information do pharmacists give to customers? Ÿ Ÿ What are public servants’ prejudices about community participation? Original Research Qualitative research Ÿ Ÿ Ten unstructured focus groups with men and women, led by a trained facilitator. Ÿ Ÿ Group activity with social organisations to identify mechanisms of citizen participation and their use. Quantitative and qualitative research Ÿ Ÿ Surveys directed at men and women in two intervention sites and two non-intervened sites for comparison purposes. Trained surveyors will use electronic diaries to collect data with a sample of participants. Ÿ Ÿ Face-to-face quantitative surveys with public servants working on different sectors within the intervention area(health, education, etc.). Step 4: Data collection Adapted from C-Change(2012), Practitioner’s Handbook, Module, p. 16 In order to collect data of the best possible quality, an appropriate and qualified team is necessary. The people involved should be familiar with the research technique being used, as well as the topic being focused on. Various tests should be conducted to allow them to become familiar with the instrument, and become aware of potential difficulties that could emerge during its application. It is very important that interviewers avoid expressing their points of view or prejudices during the data collection process, as this may create bias in the responses. Before applying any data collection tool, participants should be clearly informed about the research purposes. Written consent should always be obtained to be able to use the results for research purposes. If audio or video recordings are made, it is also important to have the participants’ informed consent on where and how these will be used. 50

CHAPTER FIVE Step 5: Data analysis and reporting Analysis is the process of exploring data and reports in order to extract meaningful insights, which can be used to better understand and improve business performance. Reporting translates raw data into information. When quantitative techniques have been applied, the information is tabulated by grouping similar answers for each question. Generally, the results are not expressed as total numbers, but as percentages of the total number of answers. Results are preferably consolidated in tables or graphics, showing answers obtained for each question. When qualitative techniques have been applied, the following step consists of transcribing the interviews or focus groups from audio or video recordings. Notes on observations made by data collectors and the moderator should also be included. Transcriptions must be analysed and coded – identifying common and more prominent themes in the first stage and different and unique aspects later on. The categories defined by the theoretical model followed during the design phase can also work as reference for the initial codification of transcripts. Examples of these categories include information, attitudes, beliefs and social norms, among others. Qualitative research reports include the common and differentiating aspects for each category of analysis. They are usually accompanied by some quotes taken from participants’ statements, which could serve as examples to broaden understanding. Step 6: Use of the research report Research reports enable information-sharing on the current situation of the community between social organisations, NGOs, governmental institutions and other possible allies, in order to bring them to a shared understanding of the problem or situation being investigated. Similarly, the research report will facilitate identification of the most pertinent and relevant variables or categories to be focused on in the communication strategy. These variables or categories include lack of information, existing beliefs and social norms supporting a particular behaviour or lack of capacities to develop it. Finally, formative research provides key inputs to guide the design, tone and language of the messages, as well as media and communication channels to be used in each case. This information can be used later on to inform decisions about environments, characters or dialogues to be included in different communication products. Once the strategy has been designed on the basis of previous formative research, it is necessary to consider how it will be evaluated before launching the implementation phase. This is important because it is necessary to be clear about which theoretical approach and variables are of interest to analyse during and at the end of the intervention process. At the first instance, it is important to establish a baseline as a measurement of the initial situation on the variables or categories of interest. Subsequent evaluations can be applied at different stages of the process for intermediate evaluations, as well as at the end of the intervention in the evaluation of results. In order to ensure rigorous research that can demonstrate the effects of the strategy, it is also necessary to follow up the initial findings with studies conducted at the end of the third, sixth and twelfth months, or even during subsequent years, as the case may be. When a single sample is taken in the process, it is not possible to compare progress or determine to which factors long-term change can be attributed. 51

CHAPTER FIVE 5.3 MONITORING Monitoring could be defined as a‘systematic and periodic follow up of the execution of an activity that seeks to determine the degree to which its outcome coincides with what has been programmed, in order to detect deficiencies, obstacles and/or adjustment needs in a timely manner’. 133 It entails data collection and the measurement of progress towards the objectives of the programme. 134 Since monitoring activities are particularly focused on how, when and where programmed activities take place, as well as who executes them and who benefits from them, 135 they are conducted from the beginning of the programme and during its entire implementation. What is actually monitored is the implementation of activities included in the work or action plans(approach, methodology, time and resources). Monitoring the implementation of programmed activities facilitates accountability for whether or not the action plan is being implemented and, in the long run, guarantees progress towards the achievement of goals. This exercise can be conducted in a participatory way by creating spaces for the public to self-assess their own involvement, as well as the programme’s effectiveness. 136 While collecting information on a regular basis, programmes can more easily identify strengths and deficiencies in the implementation processes. This enhances their capacity to introduce adjustments in a timely manner and optimise communication strategies’ performance to meet expected results, as well as the expectations of involved communities. According to the resources available to the project, monitoring can have different levels of depth. A basic scope may be limited to determining whether or not the activities included in the project timeline were carried out in the expected timeframes and with the expected coverage. For this purpose, it would be enough to ask guiding questions such as: Are all the scheduled activities being carried out? Are they being developed in the appropriate places, using the appropriate channels and according to the establish schedules? Are these activities reaching the expected target audience and number of people? A second level could be focused on establishing the quality of the activities carried out, including their relevance and efficacy. In this case, one could ask questions such as: Are channels and communication products in use pertinent? Do target audiences adequately understand the messages being transmitted? Are audiences participating and reacting as expected? A third level should allow for drawing conclusions and making more structural decisions on the communication project or strategy being implemented. It could include questions such as: How is the project as a whole working? Are planned actions helping to obtain the expected results? Does the project have access to the resources necessary to implement planned activities? Has the selected methodology been adequately implemented in terms of strategies, approaches and audiences? 133 Mokate, K.M.(2003). Convirtiendo el‘monstruo’ en aliado: la evaluación como herramienta de la gerencia social. Serie de Documentos de Trabajo I-23. Washington, D.C. Departamento de Integración y Programas Regionales. Instituto Interamericano para el Desarrollo Social. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo. Retrieved from http://www.cepal.org/ilpes/noticias/paginas/2/35962/m1_iii_convirtiendo_ el_mou.pdf. Accessed May 9, 2018. 134 C-Change(Communication for Change).(2012). C-Modules: A Learning Package for Social and Behavior Change Communication. Practitioner’s Handbook. Module 1. Washington, DC: FHI 360/C-Change. Retrieved June 04, 2019, from https://www.c-changeprogram.org/ sites/default/files/sbcc_module0_intro.pdf. 135 UN Women(2012). The Virtual Knowledge Centre to End Violence against Women and Girls- Basic Principles of Programming, Monitoring and Evaluation. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.endvawnow.org/es/modules/view/14-lments-essentiels-de-la-programmationsuivi- evaluation.html#14. 136 Parks, W., Gray-Felder, D., Hunt, J.& Byrne, A.(2005). Who measures change? An introduction to participatory monitoring and evaluation of communication for social change. New Jersey: Communication for Social Change Consortium. 52

CHAPTER FIVE Table 4: Example of Qualitative and Quantitative Techniques for Monitoring Indicators Monitoring Indicators Percentage of participants that provide accurate information on a particular topic, after attending a workshop. Percentage of activities that have been developed within the expected timeframes and with the expected coverage. Percentage of people who perceive that the projects’ activities are adequate for the target population. Qualitative Techniques Monitoring Accurate answers provided during a focus group, based on a thematic guide. Interviews with the people responsible for the implementation of activities. Direct observation of the participants’ reactions recorded in a field diary. Quantitative Techniques Accurate answers found after applying an instrument with closed-ended questions. Activity-tracking tool that includes timeframes and coverage. Favourable answers found after applying an instrument with closed-ended questions. 5.4 EVALUATION An evaluation is a systematic assessment of the reach and scope of a communication project once implemented. It generally uses the strategy’s objectives and achievements as reference points, but it also considers processes, contextual factors, results, impacts or, in some cases, the absence of any of them.‘Evaluations are meant to determine the relevance, efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability of the interventions and their contribution to the achievement of results,’ 137 all of which are critical elements for decision-making processes. According to Alfaro:‘In order to evaluate a communication project, it is better to use research with an empirical base, carefully crafted to combine methods for quantitative measurement and qualitative data collection with as much balance and rigor as possible.’ 138 This will help evaluate different aspects of the intervention, including characteristics of the messages, audiences’ reception, the role of participation, and political and cultural competences, among others. Tacchi and Lennie consider the evaluation of communication for development strategies a useful practice, as well as an action of continuous learning and improvement of organisational processes. Beyond testing the impact of interventions, this practice seeks to improve development practices that can generate innovations later on. It can also facilitate a shift of emphasis from external responsibility – characteristic of traditional evaluations – to one focused on internal and community responsibility. 139 The two authors recommend an evaluation model focused on participatory elements, arguing that they can improve initiatives in terms of development and social change in the long term and in a sustainable way. Evaluations can serve different purposes, including visualising the effectiveness of an intervention, helping to improve existing linkages with the audience by identifying variables that affect their behaviour, improving tactics and strategies in use, and helping to gather other sources of funding. 140 137 UN Women.(2012). Op. cit. 138 Alfaro, R. M.(1993). Op. cit. p. 111. 139 Tacchi, J.& Lennie, J.(2014). A framework for researching and evaluating communication for development and social change, In Wilkins, K, Tufte, T& Obregón, R.(Eds.), The Handbook on Development Communication and Social Change. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 298-320. 140 C-Change(Communication for Change).(2012). Op. cit. 53

CHAPTER FIVE It is also important to acknowledge that there are different interests in place when deciding to conduct an assessment of this nature. Scholars are usually interested in accounting for the validity of theories of change and communication. This implies understanding how communication processes operate and how their effectiveness can be assessed, in such a way that they can generate knowledge that does not necessarily have immediate application within the project’s framework. In these cases, results are usually framed as scientific publications. For implementing institutions, whether from the government, NGOs or international cooperation agencies, evaluations can serve the purpose of showing the results achieved through a programme or project. The goals pursued in this case include collecting inputs to improve the effectiveness of policies and programmes, account for the resources invested by funding institutions, justify the need for new funds to continue the interventions, and share evidence of effectiveness with partners, among others. Finally, the interests of the communities, with respect to evaluations, are rather focused on understanding how much progress has been made to solve a particular problem, as well as identifying challenges that the community might face to move forward. While the evaluation of communication for development strategies, as with any other evaluation, may sometimes be perceived as too expensive, it is extremely important to explore ways to minimally assess their impact. Depending on available resources, organisations may consider full-fledged evaluations or small-scale evaluations. Without this information, it would be difficult for any organisation to demonstrate the contribution that communication has made to its overall work, improve the undertaking of subsequent communication strategies, and strengthen the overall effectiveness of its work. The following pages provide an overview of evaluation approaches and options. There are several types of evaluation, including those based on design(formative and summative evaluation), and those based on the usefulness of the final data(results and impact evaluation). Table 5: Differences between Process, Results and Impact Evaluation Process Evaluation Intermediate It is focused on achievements reached through programmed activities. It is aimed at generating lessons and redirecting actions. Indicator’s example: Percentage of people capable of using existing mechanisms to request information on a public matter by the end of the workshop. Results Evaluation Mid-term It is focused on comparing the proposed goals with the results achieved. It is called summative evaluation when it is aimed at generating learning for new designs. It is conducted through intermediate communication indicators. Indicator’s example: Percentage of community leaders with the skills to follow up on public management by the end of the project. Impact Evaluation Final – Long-term It is focused on comparing proposed objectives with the results finally achieved. It is conducted through defined indicators. Indicator’s example: Increase in transparency indicators in public management at the local level. 54

CHAPTER FIVE 5.4.1 Process evaluation Process evaluation is conducted through periodic monitoring and is focused on knowing whether progress is being made towards the objectives set by programmes or strategies. Process evaluation seeks to improve actors’ performance within the strategy or programme and determine if it is necessary to redirect the process. This assessment has been used regularly in the field of education; however, it constitutes an important resource for decision-making aimed at rendering communication strategies more effective. In some cases, it is also associated with monitoring when it is concerned with the quality of specific activities. Another name for this kind of evaluation is‘evaluation of processes’. 5.4.2 Results evaluation Results evaluation is conducted to determine what has been achieved in relation to the proposed objectives. That is, expected results are compared with obtained results in order to determine whether the objectives outlined in the communication plan were met. This type of evaluation is conducted at the end of the process, producing an all-encompassing assessment of the effectiveness and efficiency of the strategy or programme. This type of evaluation is called‘summative evaluation when it aims to account for how the different activities of the project led to the achievement of results and which activities were most effective. In this case, greater importance is given to the lessons learned. References to results in the case of communication strategies usually point out intermediate indicators that can range from specific factors such as knowledge, attitudes, norms and sense of belonging, to short-, medium- and long-term individual and collective behaviours. 5.4.3 Impact evaluation Impact evaluation intends to identify to what extent desired changes were achieved during the programme or strategy, and to what extent these changes can be attributed to the intervention. Impact in terms of communication refers to changes beyond the intermediate indicators mentioned in the results evaluation. This is the case of social or epidemiological indicators that show changes in areas such as education, income, public health, or well-being. These changes present major measurement challenges and are usually achieved in the long term through a combination of several strategies, including, but not limited to, communication. 5.4.4 Evaluation – step-by-step a. Defining the operative theory of change Defining what will be evaluated is considered the starting point for the design of a communication strategy: knowing precisely what is intended to be achieved will provide a guide to structure all the steps of the project. Based on the needs identified during formative research, it will be possible to define which model or theories can be useful to guide the strategy, and through them, the approaches, variables and categories to be included in the evaluation. b. Outlining objectives During the design phase of the strategy, it is necessary to ask the following questions: What does this project intend to achieve? What changes do you want to achieve in the participating population? What is the timeframe expected for these changes to occur? What kind of activities would be appropriate for this purpose? For evaluation purposes, programme objectives determine the scope of what is intended to be evaluated, depending on whether formative results or impact indicators are sought. 55

CHAPTER FIVE c. Research design Depending on the type of evaluation to be conducted and the objectives set for the strategy, several methodological designs can be implemented. For evaluations based on quantitative studies, the most common designs are outlined in table 6. Table 6: Type of Studies for Evaluations Based on Quantitative Methods Type of Study Pre- and post-testcontrolled study Randomised controlled trial Cross-sectional post-intervention studies Characteristics This study consists of applying a measurement prior to and after intervention, using the same instrument in both cases. This type of study has the advantage of providing evidence of change, and the disadvantage of not always making it possible to attribute these changes to the strategy. This is the most sophisticated design. It should strictly adhere to the following requirements: 1. A comparison is drawn between groups, but the intervention is only carried out in one or some of them. 2. Individuals participating in the evaluation for each group are randomly selected. 3. Input and output measurements are established to compare changes that have occurred over the course of the study. Researchers apply an instrument(usually a survey or questionnaire) as a single measurement of the object of study in a representative sample. These studies can serve as a baseline for future interventions or research. Evaluations based on qualitative studies include: Table 7: Type of Studies for Evaluations Based on Qualitative Methods Type of Study Characteristics Descriptive studies – post-intervention Perceptions, memories and points of view on the changes generated during and at the end of an intervention can be identified as qualitative research techniques. These studies are also useful to identify perceptions of effectiveness in developed activities. Descriptive studies – preand post-intervention These studies are similar to the previous case, but here, one study is conducted at the beginning and the other at the end of the strategy in order to make comparisons. Single case study This type of study provides a large amount of data on the perspectives or experiences of a person, family or group. Through qualitative techniques it is possible to see the evolution of the intervention in the selected case. It does not analyse applicability in other contexts. Most significant changes Through qualitative and participatory techniques, it is possible to establish which have been the most significant changes experienced by the participating population during the implementation of the project. Participatory evaluations Through methods such as Participatory Rapid Assessment, participating populations determine the scope and limitations of a project, as well as the challenges that may arise for the community. 56

CHAPTER FIVE Depending on whether the study is quantitative or qualitative, the evaluation design follows a different process, as summarised in section 5, below. 5.5 SYSTEMATISATION OF COMMUNICATION PROGRAMMES Definition Systematisation is the process of collecting, ordering and analysing information about a research process or experience. The goal of a systematisation process is to compile lessons learned along the process, in order to be able to replicate an improved version of such a programme. Interventions and strategies are systematised in order to improve, enrich and transform practices. 141 Steps in the systematisation of communication programmes Figure 12: Steps in the Systematisation of Communication Programmes Initial Situation Intervention Process Final Situation Initial Situation • • Describe the problem or development opportunity before the intervention • • Contextual Elements • • Problem causes or opportunities • • Factors that limit local possibilities of action to solve the problem or take the opportunity Intervention • • What has been done(activities)? • • When was it done(times)? • • Who did it(actors)? • • How was it done(method)? • • Which resources were used(media and costs)? • • Contextual Elements • • Factors favouring the intervention • • Factors limiting the intervention Final situation • • How is the current situation compared to the initial status? • • What are the tangible and intangible benefits? • • Who has captured these benefits? • • Contextual Elements • • Factors amplifying the magnitude of the effects or the number of intended beneficiaries • • Factors limiting the magnitude of the effects or the number of intended beneficiaries Lessons Learned • • What would you do in the same way next time? • • What would you do differently next time? Source: Julio Berdegue et al., 2000(as cited in Acosta, L.A.(2005) Guía práctica para la sistematización de proyectos y programas de cooperación técnica. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe.) The systematisation of a communication programme can be summarised in four steps: 142 1. Definition of goals: This first step seeks to conceive and define the expected results of the systematisation, what products may come out of it, how they will be used as well as how this information can be useful to the institution systematising it and to others. 2. Object of analysis: The second step is to define the object of the systematisation, that is: which experience(s) will be systematized and why. This enables the investigator to limit the object in time and space, making it possible to focus on a particular aspect or stage of the information being analysed. 3. Axis of systematisation: In this step, a specific approach should be chosen to systematise the information and the central aspects that will be highlighted in the experience. These decisions should make it easier to choose the information to be collected. This step could be divided into multiple phases, as follows: 141 International Alliance of Inhabitants. Guide to Systematization. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from: https://esp.habitants.org/media/files/ guide_to_systematization. 142 Acosta, L.A.(2005). Guía práctica para la sistematización de proyectos y programas de cooperación técnica. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe. Retrieved June 05, 2019, from http://www.fao.org/3/a-ah474s.pdf. 57

CHAPTER FIVE • • Actors: Those who participated in decisions and activities, including authorities, community members, institutions, and representatives of the health and education sectors, among others. • • Initial situation and context: The impacted population may face problems or opportunities that should be described at this stage. For example, lack of potable water, epidemics of communicable diseases, or child malnutrition. This phase should also include those elements that act as barriers or limitations to solve these problems. • • Intervention: This is the point where the most relevant information is collected. Activities, time, actors, methods, resources, facilitating elements, and limitations are presented at this stage. • • Final situation: At this stage, the main results of the experience are synthesised. Here, it is possible to depict how things were before the intervention and what the current situation is according to the proposed objectives. • • Lessons learned: Identifying lessons learned from an experience is fundamental for its successful replication. The focus is finding out which aspects are highlighted as successful, and which ones need improvement. These conclusions emerge from a reflection on the experience. 4. Dissemination strategy: An important step that is usually not considered in systematisation processes is how the results of the systematisation will be communicated as specific products. Depending on the population being targeted as the audience, this step may include documents, publications, outreach events, and socialisation events through workshops or seminars, among others. 5.6 USES OF RESEARCH IN MONITORING AND EVALUATION Research is essential in monitoring and evaluation(M&E) processes, as it allows one to inquire and report about the different phases of communication for social change interventions. Different research methods should be used for different purposes. Using these methods according to their specific guidelines ensures that the results obtained are used as the basis for conducting actions that reinforce or correct along the phases of communication. Although are several research methods, they are applied in similar ways through the following five stages (or phases): 143 1. Observe and evaluate a specific phenomena. 2. Establish assumptions or ideas as a result of the previously conducted observation and evaluation. 3. Probe and demonstrate the degree to which assumptions or ideas are supported by evidence. 4. Review such assumptions or ideas on the basis of evidence or analysis. 5. Propose new observations and assessments to clarify, modify, strengthen, and/or support assumptions and ideas, or to formulate new ones. 5.6.1 Methods Quantitative methods This method uses‘data collection and analysis to answer research questions and test previously established hypotheses. They rely on numerical measurement, counting and statistics to accurately establish behaviour patterns in a population’. 144 Therefore, they generally use standardised measurement instruments. These instruments are useful to study an accurate dimension of the phenomena being analysed, to generalise their results and set reference points to make comparisons based on the magnitude of the phenomenon being measured. 143 Hernández-Sampieri, R., Fernández-Collado, C.& Baptista-Lucio, P.(2004). Metodología de la Investigación. México D-F.: McGraw-Hill Interamericana. 144 Hernández-Sampieri, R., Fernández-Collado, C.& Baptista-Lucio, P.(2004) Op. cit. p.168 58

CHAPTER FIVE Qualitative methods These are used to conduct research into a phenomenon in a holistic way, and to reconstruct it as observed by the people who live it. It is mainly based on data obtained from descriptions and observations, i.e. non-quantitative information, although not exclusively. Questions or hypotheses that could be addressed from a quantitative approach arise as a result of qualitative data analysis. Qualitative research processes use a variety of techniques. They are flexible in terms of carefully considering the events that arise in contexts under analysis, but they also enable rigor in the analytical process by following certain steps for doing an in-depth examination of the phenomena at hand, and in such a way that it can even be focused on theory development. 145 Mixed methods In this method, both quantitative and qualitative methods are used. Both approaches are valid and complementary because they do not mutually exclude or substitute each other. On the contrary, because they are used to study the same phenomenon, they can expand vision and understanding around it when used together. In essence, the five stages or phases previously described do not change, although they can be applied during the entire research process, or to only some parts of it. Using mixed methods demands an open mind from the researcher because the philosophical conceptions behind both approaches oscillate between inductive and deductive thinking, demanding skills and capacity to collect quantitative and qualitative data, as well as to analyse them according to these differentiated philosophical conceptions. 146 Participatory methods Participatory methods are inter-subjective because they are not based solely on the interests of the researcher, but take into consideration the views of participants. This implies that they are open to using any of the above methods, depending on the agreements reached for the best implementation and impact evaluation of these programmes. As principles of participatory methods, it can be considered that they entail a perspective of complexity; acknowledge the existence of multiple realities; prioritise the realities of excluded sectors; favour the empowerment of citizens; go from evaluation to sustainable learning; and relate learning to action. 147 Data collection techniques used in participatory methods include: 1. Visuals: Flow/causal diagram; Venn/institutional diagram; Systems diagrams; Pie charts; Histograms. 2. Ranking techniques: Preference Ranking and Scoring; Pairwise Ranking; Direct Matrix Ranking; Ranking by Voting; Wealth Ranking. 3. Analysis of time trends: Historical and Future(Vision) Mapping; Time Lines and Trends; Oral Histories. 4. Mapping techniques: Mobility Mapping; Social Mapping; Transect Walks. 5. Calendars: Seasonal Calendar; Historical Seasonal Calendar. 6. Ethno-classifications: Proverbs, Stories, Indigenous Categories and Terms, Taxonomies. 7. Group and team dynamics methods: Focus Groups(discussion groups); Participatory Workshops; the Most Significant Change; Role Playing. 145 Hernández-Sampieri, R., Fernández-Collado, C.& Baptista-Lucio, P.(2004) Op. cit. p.167 146 Hernández-Sampieri, R., Fernández-Collado, C.& Baptista-Lucio, P.(2004) Op. cit. p.167 147 Mayoux, L.& Chambers, R.(2005). Reversing the paradigm: quantification, participatory methods and pro-poor impact assessment. Journal of International Development, 17(2005), pp. 271-298. 59

CHAPTER FIVE 5.6.2 Techniques led by researchers and participants There are different techniques that can be used by both the project leaders and participants themselves in order to collect data. The method used will affect the techniques used. Surveys Structured as a questionnaire used to collect information from individuals(usually representative of the target audience), in order to explore their knowledge, attitudes, opinions or behaviours on one or several topics. 148 This technique is used in quantitative methods. Interviews Conversations used for gathering verbal information about different aspects of the proposed research question. It requires that the researcher knows the subject well, so that he or she can be prepared to take different routes as information emerges. This technique requires a recording device to store the interviewee’s expressions with accuracy, as well as comfortable space that is free of interruptions, to facilitate the flow of the interaction. 149 This technique is applied in qualitative methods. Focus groups Gathering a group of people together to discuss a topic of interest with a researcher. The researcher does not lead or control the discussion, but facilitates and stimulates it. During the discussion, the researcher asks a series of questions designed to discover the group’s attitudes, values and behaviours, as well as feelings and motivations around the topic under discussion. 150 Workshops A research technique designed to collect, analyse and build knowledge from the constructions and deconstructions made by participants about elements, relationships and knowledge of interest for the researcher. Workshops require creativity to manage their dynamic and somewhat unstable nature, so no workshop is the same. Most significant change(MSC) This participatory monitoring and evaluation technique involves participants and stakeholders in data analysis and decision-making processes. It is focused on collecting stories of significant change that have emerged in the specific space where the programme has been developed, and subsequently selecting them to identify ideas of change as experienced by individuals and groups. Both participants and stakeholders are involved in the initial search for impacts of the project. Once the most important changes have been identified, actors come together to read stories aloud and have regular, often in-depth, discussions about the value of the reported changes. 151 Novella, for instance, provides a helpful account of how MSC was applied to evaluate the impact of a school and community-based intervention in Cartagena, Colombia, to address violence against children and women. 152 148 CIS- Centre for Sociological Research. What is a survey? Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.cis.es/cis/opencms/EN/ 1_encuestas/ ComoSeHacen/queesunaencuesta.html. 149 Hocking, J., Stacks, D.& McDermott, S.(2002). Communication research. New York, NY: Longman. 150 Hocking, J., Stacks, D.& McDermott, S.(2002). Op. cit. p.174 151 Davies, R.& Dart, J.(2005). The‘Most Significant Change’(MSC) Technique. Change,(April):1–104. 152 Novella, C.(2011). When the body is the oppressed, or the Ma project, dancing a new collective story. Ohio: Ohio University. 60

CHAPTER FIVE Media monitoring A technique used to follow content and media activity on a particular topic, person, organisation or product in different contexts, to be analysed later on. 153 Content published by various media can be analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, in the case of a parliamentary election period, a quantitative analysis involves counting and measuring media coverage of the different political parties, using criteria such as number and length of articles dedicated to each of them. Qualitative approaches evaluate the quality of such coverage by means of the language used and the message itself. It often resorts to discourse analysis to uncover hidden messages conveyed in media content. 154 Social media trends This technique focuses on tracking, registering, classifying and analysing contents shared through social media such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc. Specialised companies offer this type of service to monitor accounts that can offer useful information to segment audiences, position clients, and index trends or images. 155 Social media is continuously generating information in real-time. Of all the information generated, only a small proportion of it will ultimately become‘trending’ content, which means that this content is commented on, shared and marked as liked or disliked on a massive scale, to the extent that it becomes of consequential interest to the public. This can be of great interest in the social sciences because it allows us to see how relevant news of general interest – for instance news related to public health – is received and analysed by the public that accesses these media. 156 In fact, exploring social networks also helps to establish sources of information and disinformation for specific groups, specifically their influencers, in order to be able to act before a message becomes a belief among a discernible group of people. Mapping information through‘digital listening’ facilitates identification of trends in public interests, such as widely spreading rumours and information associated with the public’s perception of risk. 157 Real-time monitoring Social monitoring is an innovative tool based on technology. Since communities can participate directly in topics of their interest via text-based messaging services and social media, it is considered to be user-centred. This tool has been used by UNICEF in Uganda, for example, under the name of U-Report Uganda. Surveys and alerts are sent via SMS to registered users(U-Reporters) to obtain real-time responses that will be shared with their communities. Issues covered include health, education, water, sanitation, unemployment, and disease outbreaks, among others. This tool enables a favourable scenario for community development, commitment and changes to benefit the community. U-Reporters have voluntarily signed up for the programme, and are able to report what happens in their community, use results and information to improve citizen awareness, participate in national campaigns to benefit the country, and share what happens in Uganda with other U-Reporters worldwide. 158 153 Communicólogos. Media monitoring. Retrieved February 03, 2018, from https://www.comunicologos.com/english-version/techniques/ media-monitoring/. 154 Network of electoral knowledge. Media monitoring. Retrieved May 06, 2019, from https://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/me/med/med04/ med06/med06b/med06b03?set_language=e. 155 Digital Monitoring. Media Monitoring and Evaluation: Radio, TV, Press, Online, Social Media. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www. monitoreodigital.com/. 156 sur, S., Huberman, B.A., Szabo, G.& Wang C.(2011). Trends in Social Media: Persistence and Decay. Proc 5th Int. AAAI Conf. Weblogs Soc. Media, 434–7. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://arxiv.org/abs/1102.1402. 157 The Communication Initiative. Enhancing How Governments Assess Awareness of Zika. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.comminit. com/global/content/knowledge-attitudes-and-practices-kap-surveys-zika-virus-disease-and-potential-complicat. 158 UNICEF. U-Report Uganda. Voice Matters. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.ureport.ug/about. 61

ANNEXES ANNEXES The following case studies have been included to illustrate the application of communication for development and social change principles, concepts, theories, approaches, and research, monitoring and evaluation issues. They represent a wide range of approaches, development themes, and geographic contexts. These case studies, however, are neither in-depth nor intended to illustrate each of the steps outlined in the Participant’s Guide as the authors recognise that due to contextual issues, there is inevitable variation regarding the specific format used by each communication for development and social change strategy. Rather, these case studies should serve as brief illustrations of how communication for development and social change strategies have been implemented by different organisations, how they integrate different communication elements, and what specific issues they have monitored and evaluated, when applicable. We encourage readers, facilitators, workshop participants and practitioners who use this Manual to visit the websites included in each case study. This will enhance understanding of key components of these experiences, and determine their relevance to the implementation of communication for development and social change strategies in specific contexts. 62

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 1 PHUZA WISE CAMPAIGN(SOUTH AFRICA) Developed by the Soul City Institute for Social Justice, 159 the Phuza Wize(Responsible Drinking) Campaign is an initiative focused on preventing violence by generating safe spaces for the consumption of alcohol. Strategies and messages After conducting research on the relationship between violence and alcohol consumption in South Africa, the campaign identified legal and illegal commercial property owners(including bars, taverns, hotels, etc.), young men between the ages of 15 and 35 and other frequent visitors of these establishments as target audiences. The campaign’s focus on creating safe spaces for the consumption of alcohol was characterised by ten criteria: 1. Have good lighting, clean bathrooms and safety measures. 2. Do not sell alcohol to intoxicated people. 3. Do not sell alcohol to minors under the age of 18. 4. Do not sell alcohol to evidently pregnant women. 5. Do not allow more than three people per square-metre. 6. Sell food and non-alcoholic beverages. Distribute water. 7. Have clearly defined service areas inside and outside the business area. 8. Disseminate messages about safe sex and condoms. 9. Encourage customers not to drive after drinking alcohol. 10. Have appropriate opening hours: 2:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m.(Sundays); 1:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m.(Monday – Thursday); and 1:00 p.m. to 00:00(Friday – Saturday). These messages were distributed through a combination of mass media strategies, social mobilisation and advocacy. The 10 th series of the Soul City TV drama, for example, included a storyline about families touched by tragedy as a result of violence associated with irresponsible alcohol consumption. In addition, the campaign made available a website with articles and information on the same issues. The advocacy component of this campaign sought to involve different government agencies – including the Departments of Transport, Health, Trade and Industry, Social Development and Education – to propose changes in their policies on alcohol sales. Likewise, the campaign organised dialogues with civil society representatives through a series of forums on alcohol marketing and comprehensive prevention policies, and distributed a resource kit with campaign materials to journalists from different media. Key aspect Social mobilisation through training and coaching sessions was developed in communities particularly affected by this problem, as a key step to more directly link communities and audiences to different components of the strategy. These social mobilisation actions also included close work with schools to help them become alcohol-free spaces, as well as commercial stores to facilitate implementation of the campaign’s core messages. 159 Soul City Institute(2019). Phuza Wize. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from www.soulcity.org.za/campaigns/phuza-wize. 63

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 2 SOUL CITY(SOUTH AFRICA) Soul City is an interesting example of what an integrated set of communication strategies and activities can represent when they are sustained over the years. Since its inception in 1994, Soul City has become the most important entertainment-education reference worldwide. Strategies and messages Each year, the Soul City Institute for Social Justice implements a series of mass, group and interpersonal communication interventions concurrently with a thirteen-episode television series, which is broadcast for three months on prime-time and constitutes the core of the strategy. The twelve seasons of the series produced to date have focused on a variety of topics, including maternal and child health, child abuse, HIV/AIDS, alcohol abuse, violence against women, cervical cancer, and teenage pregnancy, among others. In each case, different types of actions have been defined to support conversations around the series. Soul City acknowledges that possibilities of social and behavioural change grow as members of the audience come into contact with and establish dialogue around the issues addressed. For this reason, they have strategically used different kinds of media, from printed material to clubs, radio programmes, social mobilisation actions, audio cassettes, manuals for journalists, contests and reality shows, to keep the dialogue open throughout the year. Soul City has evaluated the impact of the series in each of its seasons. In 2015, for example, an assessment was conducted to measure the impact of Season 12, implemented in combination with advocacy and social media strategies. This mixed-methods evaluation used media monitoring and web analytics, as well as interviews and focus groups with community members. The TV series reached more than 6 million South Africans, while the radio programme reached almost 1.7 million people, and more than 53,000 people followed actions through social media. Since this season was focused on health issues, members of the audience reported having experienced changes in practices and social norms, including reduced alcohol consumption and getting health insurance. 160 Key aspect Soul City can be considered an iconic case and a starting point for many other entertainment-education interventions around the world:‘Soul City represented a major methodological break-through in EE praxis when it initiated activities in the early 1990s. As such, it spearheaded the effort to bridge traditions of social marketing and health promotion with participatory strategies of involving the audiences in all stages of the communication strategies.’ 161 160 Soul City Institute(2015). Soul City Series 12, Audience Reception Report. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from file:///C:/Users/fesintern2/ Downloads/Series%2012%20Audience%20Analysis%202015_final%20web.pdf. 161 Tufte, T.(2005). Op. cit. 64

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 3 NOLLYWOOD(NIGERIA) Since the early 1990s, audio-visual production in Nigeria has become an industry of great relevance, as well as a cultural phenomenon nurtured by local traditions. Different from Soul City, Nollywood has not used E-E in a systematic and planned manner; instead, it has embedded relevant stories and messages into its content in coordination with Nollywood producers and scriptwriters. Nollywood is worth including as a case study because of its influence on the cultural and political transformations in Nigeria through this medium. Strategies and messages The films made by Nollywood are rooted in Nigerian traditions and community life. Their stories are told in local languages, using proverbs, costumes, elements and images from across the African continent. The most commonly used genres include comedy, urban legends, romance, juju, witchcraft, melodrama, horror, and epic stories. 162 According to Onuzulike, these films are able to influence Africans and have an impact on their lives. For example, Nollywood films have played an important role in representing migration movements of people returning to their villages and portraying their feelings about returning to their origins. This resonates with the audiences, who see themselves represented in both their past and their future. 163 Building on this capacity, several development organisations have partnered with Nollywood producers and/or actors to convey important educational messages. For example, Funke Akindele, a Nigerian actress popularly known as Jenifa, joined the group of public figures and celebrities participating in the global ‘This Close’ campaign. 164 Promoted by the International Rotary Club, UNICEF and other institutions involved in efforts to eradicate polio in the world, the campaign asks these characters to raise their thumb and index fingers to illustrate that‘we are this close to ending polio’ in Nigeria. In addition to supporting the dissemination of this message with her image, Akindele has participated in cultural and sport events aimed at providing information on the importance of vaccination to the general public. Funke Akindele joins the voices of personalities such as Bill Gates, Desmond Tutu, Jackie Chan and PSY to raise awareness about polio and how to prevent it. Key aspects The application of the entertainment-education strategy in Nollywood illustrates how to use the existing convening power of local media to systematically and contextually disseminate educational content and engage local communities and audiences. Additionally, it is critical to connect entertainment media platforms such as Nollywood to other communication components within broader strategies. 162 Uwah, I. E.(2008). Nollywood films as a site for constructing contemporary African identities: The significance of village ritual scenes in Igbo films. African Communication Research, 1(1), pp. 87-112. 163 Uwah, I. E.(2008). Op. cit. 164 Rotary(2017).'This Close'- End Polio Now. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9RthEZiijVo&vl=en. 65

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 4 SIXTH SENSE(NICARAGUA) The series Sexto Sentido(Sixth Sense) was created by a group of women organised to promote social change in Nicaragua through the NGO Puntos de Encuentro(NGO Meeting Points). 165 Strategies and messages Sexto Sentido is a youth soap opera starring a group of young characters who experience difficulties and find ways to solve them, individually or collectively. Topics covered in the series include alcohol and drug use, teenage pregnancy, HIV/AIDS, family problems, sexual and reproductive health, violence against women, and notions of masculinity, among others.‘All the themes in this series are‘windows’ through which cultural and social mandates integrated in our daily life are questioned and challenged, at an individual level, but also in homes, churches, study centres, communities, institutions and even in law.’ 166 The soap opera is accompanied by thirty-minute themed videos focused on a particular issue for educational purposes. These videos are also accompanied by printed brochures that complement the educational package. Similarly, Puntos de Encuentro has developed a mobile application – EduPuntoPack – to download all the material from the series. Other elements to highlight in this strategy include: • • Radio: A youth radio show designed to facilitate interaction with the audience during live broadcasts aired on six commercial stations. • • Community activities: Training camps for youth leaders, distribution of educational materials, and cast visits to schools. • • Coordination with partners: Established with media, journalists, women’s organisations and youth leaders from Central America to keep dialogue and conversation open and accessible through different media. Key aspects An evaluation of the strategy conducted in 2008 determined that during that year, the series reached 700,000 youth throughout Nicaragua. This research also suggested that greater exposure to the strategy resulted in greater positive effects on interpersonal communication, which in turn strengthened selfperceived risk with regard to HIV and increased the ability of couples to address issues of prevention. 167 165 Puntos de encuentro. ¿En que andamos? Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.puntosdeencuentro.org/. 166 Puntos de Encuentro.Sexto Sentido. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.puntosdeencuentro.org/medios/tv-y-videos-tematicos/ sexto-sentido. 167 Puntos de Encuentro.(2008). Catalyzing Personal and Social Change around Gender, Sexuality, and HIV: Impact Evaluation of Puntos de Encuentro’s Communication Strategy in Nicaragua. Working Paper. Managua: Puntos de Encuentro. 66

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 5 FEMINA HIP(TANZANIA) Femina HIP 168 seeks to provide guidelines and information on sexuality, reproductive health, life skills, and job opportunities for Tanzanian youth. 169 Through using different media and community-based activities, it aims to support the youth in making informed decisions about how to stay healthy and how to improve their relationships. Strategies and messages Femina HIP uses a multimedia approach that includes entertainment-education as a key component, and different media platforms that reflect the culture and language of young people. Its main vehicles are: • • FEMA Magazine , which includes articles about sexuality, risk, HIV/AIDS and other topics related to lifestyle and behaviour. It is one of the most popular publications for youth in the country, to the extent that it has inspired the creation of Fema Readers’ Clubs in and out of schools. A User’s Guide for the magazine offers ideas on how to use its content in different contexts. • • Fema TV is the first talk show presented by and for young people in Tanzania. The show aims to reflect on the contents of the magazine in an audio-visual format. • • Si Mchezo!(No Joke!) , which is designed for youth who are out of school and/or who have not acquired the habit of reading, is the rural version of the Fema magazine. Using a laptop and a digital camera, the editors of the magazine travel to different rural communities to collect stories. Each issue is produced together with the story-tellers/readers. • • Living Positively is a series of books on‘Living with HIV/AIDS’. Two books, called‘AIDS in our Community’ and‘Living Positively with HIV/AIDS’, have been distributed through voluntary HIV/AIDS testing centres. • • Touring Shows : HIV/AIDS activists and HIP team members who are interested in theatre travel regularly to schools and communities in Tanzania to meet readers and viewers. These visits emphasise the importance of staying healthy and acquiring basic knowledge on sexual health. 168 The Communication Initiative(2007). Femina HIP(Health Information Project). Retrieved May 09, 2019, from http://www.comminit.com/ global/node/45170. 169 Femina Hip(2018). Our‘edutainment’ multi-media platform engages over 15 million young Tanzanians each year. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.feminahip.or.tz. 67

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 6 MINGA PERÚ(PERU) Minga Perú has worked in the Peruvian Amazon for more than 14 years, to empower local indigenous communities, especially women. It uses various media and community approaches. Minga Perú’s main vehicle is a radio magazine programme called‘Welcome Health’( Bienvenida Salud), which has a radio drama, debates stories from letters shared by the audience on air, and discusses other local issues. 170 Strategies and messages Issues addressed by‘Welcome Health’ include violence against women, domestic violence, HIV/AIDS, gender equality, human rights, environmental conservation, and women’s economic empowerment, among others. With more than 120,000 listeners, 40,000 letters sent to the station and 1,400 episodes, this strategy of social change has facilitated important changes at individual and collective levels in the Peruvian Amazon, including: • • Decrease in domestic violence; • • Changes in public discourse; • • Changes in behaviour, especially in relation to teenage pregnancy and gender equality; • • New forms of building a prestigious masculinity; • • Increased participation of women as leaders in public spaces; and • • Changes in policies and practices by local authorities. Key aspects Apart from the radio show, the strategy also includes training for local women leaders on financial empowerment, conservation of natural resources, and bio-cultural and linguistic preservation. 170 Minga Peru. Peruvian Amazon, radio for social change. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from https://mingaperu.org/es/inicio/. 68

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 7 MTV STAYING ALIVE IGNITE CAMPAIGN The MTV Staying Alive Campaign was launched in 1998 and is one of the largest HIV/AIDS prevention campaigns in the world. 171 The main objective of the campaign is to create an HIV-free generation by promoting safer lifestyle choices and addressing stigma and discrimination against HIV. These messages are communicated through multiple media formats such as short films, music concerts, dramas, movies, public service announcements, advertisements, posters, forums, and web content. The campaign mainly focuses on a young audience, as it is one of the groups most vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. Strategies and messages Issues addressed in the campaign include prevention, stigma, importance of HIV testing, abstinence, dangers of having multiple partners and condom use. The MTV Staying Alive Ignite campaign is a multi-partnership between MTV Networks International, the Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS(UNAIDS), the United Nations Children’s Fund(UNICEF), the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief(PEPFAR), the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency(SIDA), the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the World Bank, and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The campaign emphasises a shared belief in the essential role of information and empowerment to keep younger generations healthy. This campaign intends to enable young people to think about and talk to others about HIV-related issues, with the expectation that this will change their sexual attitudes and behaviour. In 2009, the MTV Staying Alive Ignite Campaign was implemented in Ukraine, Kenya, and Trinidad and Tobago. These three countries were selected because they had some of the highest percentages of HIV/ AIDS-caused deaths in their respective regions: Sub-Saharan Africa, the Caribbean Islands, and Eastern Europe and Central Asia. In these areas, the HIV infection rates were especially high among young people. Key aspects Before the communication intervention was implemented in the three focus countries, research on existing knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding HIV/AIDS in the affected communities was conducted, to be used as baseline and reference points for content production. This baseline included factors that contribute to high rates of HIV infections, youth behaviour in their environments, and effective ways in which specific interventions could alter behaviour among young audiences. The Ignite Campaign included a three-part drama, a behind-the-scenes show, and exclusive radio and television interviews with the local artists featured in the drama. The three-part drama series were called Shuga in Kenya, Tribes in Trinidad and Tobago, and Embrace Me in Ukraine. Shuga 172 is described by MTV as‘a hard-hitting drama series that follows the lives and loves of a group of cool young students whose bright lives and fabulous futures are balanced on a knife edge due to their love of risk and danger’. 173 This series, which expanded to Nigeria and South Africa, has been broadcast on over 100 TV channels throughout Africa. 171 MTV Staying alive. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from http://www.mtvstayingalive.org/. 172 MTV Shuga. Show. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from http://www.mtvshuga.com/show/. 173 Global Health Council(2018). News Center. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://globalhealth.org/news-center/blog/. 69

ANNEXES Outcomes reported by this programme include: 174 • • Relatively high levels of success in HIV prevention as a result of exposure and promotion of dialogue; • • The campaign promoted interpersonal communication and influenced young people’s beliefs about HIV prevention in a positive way; • • Promotion of personal reflections about youth’s HIV/AIDS attitudes and behaviour; • • Increased empathy towards people living with AIDS; • • Increased intention to take the HIV test; and • • Decrease in the number of people who would intend to be in concurrent relationships. 174 Geary, Cynthia& McClain Burke, Holly& Castelnau, Laure& Neupane, Shailes& Ba Sall, Yacine& Wong, Emily.(2007). Exposure to MTV's global HIV prevention campaign in Kathmandu, Nepal; São Paulo, Brazil; and Dakar, Senegal. AIDS education and prevention, 19(1). pp. 3650. 70

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 8 SCENARIOS FROM THE SAHEL(WEST AFRICA) Scenarios from the Sahel , now part of the broader Global Dialogues 175 is an HIV/AIDS prevention project conducted by and for adolescents and young adults, primarily in three West African countries: Senegal, Mali, and Burkina Faso. Scenarios provides an opportunity for youth not only to learn more about the relationship between HIV/AIDS and their everyday lives, but also to inform people across the African continent about the dangers derived from this epidemic. Strategies and messages During the Scenarios process, youth worked in partnership with some of the region’s premier artistic talents to produce a series of short films. In early 1997, young people from these three countries were invited to take part in a contest to draft a scenario for a short film on HIV/AIDS. A second contest was carried out in 2000, with special emphasis on the participation of girls/young women, rural youth, and youth not attending school. Together, these two contests attracted nearly 22,000 participants. Seven Scenarios films (2 to 10 minutes in length) were completed by November 2000. The films were broadcast as non-commercial productions across Africa on national television stations, as well as on international networks such as TV5, CFI and Canal+Horizons. Non-profit distribution of all the films was also attempted. In order to optimize linguistic accessibility, all films were dubbed into the following languages: Swahili, Hausa, Fulani, Bambara, Moré, Wolof, English, French and Portuguese. Key aspects A key lesson learned from the contests is that this approach effectively encourages young people to explore existing sources of relevant information, and creates an environment conducive to open discussions on HIV/AIDS, violence and other relevant issues and their many implications. The contest provided a forum for girls and boys to exchange views on topics generally considered taboo. The contributions of all contest participants, gathered together at the Scenarios archives in Dakar, are freely available and can be used by researchers, prevention specialists, trainers, members of theatre groups and others. The archives are structured around a searchable, computerised database that makes it easy for interested individuals to locate and study scenarios written by a particular group or on a specific topic. The archives provide insights into the language used by young people, their perceptions of HIV/AIDS, the relevant difficulties they encounter in their everyday lives, and the solutions they suggest. The archives are also a way for members of the HIV-prevention community to measure the impact of past activities, and to formulate strategies for future actions based on needs expressed by the young contest participants. The Scenarios from the Sahel team is made up of a vast network of individuals and organisations across the Sahel and beyond, and actively collaborates with the National AIDS Control Programmes of Senegal, Mali and Burkina Faso. Today, Scenarios from the Sahel, through Global Dialogues, has evolved into an international initiative that mobilises thousands of young people, media producers and creators, local organisations, and schools and government institutions to foster dialogue and local voices about issues of great relevance to young people and their communities. 175 Global Dialogues(2019). Retrieved May 06, 2018, from http://globaldialogues.org/. 71

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 9 PRIMERO MI PRIMARIA...PARA TRIUNFAR(FIRST MY PRIMARY SCHOOL…TO SUCCEED)(COLOMBIA) The project‘Primero mi primaria...para triunfar’ was developed by Fundación Social(Social Foundation) in Colombia, 176 with the goal of getting primary education principals to take steps to improve the quality of their schools. The proposed steps, based on research and lessons learned in the past, are: 1. Assigning the best teachers of the school to teach in the first and second years of primary school. 2. Making the best use of the length and intensity of the school year. Colombia has a 170-day school year with 4.2 hours of class per day. 3. Caring for and developing self-esteem in children(e.g. not blaming the child for school failure). 4. Proposing adequate homework to improve learning and connect the family/home life to the school. 5. Paying attention to peers and friends of each child, because this is where values are formed and transformed. 6. Caring for and using school texts to improve learning, broaden educational aspirations, and create a culture of reading and writing. Strategies and messages The project relied heavily on communication and social mobilisation activities, which included the following components: 1. Re-editors (those in charge of sharing key messages of the initiative with the larger audience): 20,000 primary school principals in urban and rural schools. 2. Proposed Vision: ‘Primero mi primaria...para triunfar’(First my primary school...to succeed). 3. Social Mobilisation: Combined mail and mass media to mobilise the national education sector around specific goals: making school success possible for all children attending primary school; promoting new visions about children’s school success among educators; contributing to the modification of indicators of school success through the promotion of new understandings, decisions and actions at classroom and school levels; and improving general perceptions of primary education and teachers at social levels. 4. Information Dissemination Process: The vision‘Primero mi primaria...para triunfar’ was designed together with a creative group after building the network of re-editors(members of the community who become champions and multipliers of the key messages of the campaign and engage throughout the process), conducting research on the school principals’ fields of action and reviewing the best literature on factors of performance and school quality. This data also informed a thirty-second television advertisement that was aired 100 times on commercial channels over a month. In the TV advertisement, a boy and a girl run away from school to paint graffiti on a city wall. In the midst of tension and nerves, they write‘First my primary school…’, then they look at the screen and add‘to succeed!’ This advertisement had a high recall index. Another TV advertisement was aired during the same period, emphasising the importance of the educator, although this one had lower recall amongst the audience. 176 UNESCO(1992). Proyecto Principal de Educación en América Latina y el Caribe, 91–106. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0009/000928/092862s.pdf. 72

ANNEXES Key aspects Once there was evidence that the graffiti advertisement had national recall among educators, an information package was mailed to each school principal, including an explanation of the importance of the vision proposed in the campaign and an invitation to contribute as a re-editor. The package also contained two copies of the campaign poster, two copies of the brochure, and a questionnaire. The poster and the brochure showed images of the children from the TV advertisement, which allowed them to link the well-known advertisement to the objectives and materials they received. Additionally, weekly series with interviews and short documentaries that deepened and expanded the dialogue on the social mobilisation content through a short production called‘Educators of the New Humanity’ was widely disseminated on daily TV. This strategy was evaluated at two different times(an internal evaluation in 1989, and an external one in 1990). The two evaluation reports were published and distributed to all participating schools. By the end of its first year, the campaign had received more than 1,000 letters from directors, supervisors and parents across the country, expressing their satisfaction with this initiative. 73

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 10 TWAWEZA(KENYA, TANZANIA AND UGANDA) Launched in 2009, Twaweza(We can make it happen) is an initiative that seeks to enable people in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda to improve their quality of life through a citizen-centred approach to development and public accountability. 177 Instead of relying exclusively on the government’s capacity to advocate for their interests, Twaweza brokers relationships across a range of institutions and networks that ordinary citizens already use to meet and share information. These institutions include mass media(radio, television and newspapers), private businesses(such as cellular telephone companies), product distribution networks, religious organisations and trade unions, among others. By focusing on this brokering and mediation, Twaweza sees itself as fostering an ecosystem of change and a shift in information ecologies in East Africa. Strategies and messages Twaweza’s communication actions include: 1. Facilitating access to relevant information at the community level: This line of action focuses on expanding the flow of information that citizens have access to, as well as designing platforms through citizens which citizens can generate and share their own information. These platforms provide practical information on rights and laws, and, at the same time, translate and make relevant information on policies, budgets, programmes, services, and resources of public interest accessible. Additionally, Twaweza drives existing initiatives and uses new technologies to improve citizens’ access to a wide range of information. 2. Improving the quality, plurality, scope and independence of the mass media: Twaweza subsidises the production of high-quality public service announcements, as well as radio and television advertisements to inform citizens about key issues. The initiative is particularly interested in stimulating public debate through mass media, road shows, local video stores, and YouTube. It also facilitates the establishment of funds for the development of independent media, and the organisation of editors’ associations capable of providing ethical guidelines to counter corruption in the media. 3. Improving citizens’ public monitoring capacity: At this level, Twaweza seeks to improve citizens’ capacity to monitor health and education services. For example, citizens receive training on how to monitor the quality and quantity of textbooks and desks available in their schools, the number of functional water and sanitation sources in their communities, and the availability of medicines in their health centres. Additionally, the citizens receive information about the type of care that should be expected from staff responsible for providing services, such as teachers and healthcare personnel. Finally, citizens are guided to be able to recognise what constitutes a violation of human rights and how they can respond to it using the resources available in their contexts. Key aspects The creation of partnerships is a central element of Twaweza’s strategy. The project works with partners on issues of water, education and health, and with partners that support citizen agency more broadly. 177 Twaweza ni sisi. About us. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from https://www.twaweza.org/go/about-us. 74

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 11 CAMPAIGN FOR SMOKE-FREE KIDS(MEXICO) For several years, Mexico has been working to reduce tobacco consumption in the country. 178 Strategies and messages Among other strategies, the government has designed a media advocacy strategy to convince legislators to significantly increase taxes on cigarettes and, thus, reduce smoking and its adverse health consequences. This media advocacy campaign was supported by a variety of stakeholders, including members of the government and legislators, academic groups, civil society, as well as international and multilateral organisations. Each stakeholder had a distinct role and the strategy enabled them to make the most out of their available resources. Key aspects To support the tax increase, the stakeholders researched several aspects, including: a) the viability of this proposal in the context of the country; b) strong scientific evidence supporting an increase of taxes on cigarettes as an effective control measure; c) the target audience of the campaign, which in this case was the entire legislature, regardless of their political affiliation; d) possible spokespersons, i.e. members of various sectors with credibility to disseminate the proposal; e) potential responses to the tobacco industry’s tactics to hinder the progress of tobacco control legislation, such as the dissemination of misinformation about cigarette tax increases; and f) potential financing of the campaign to be able to buy advertising space to widely share the proposal. The use of scientific evidence was a strong element in the success of the campaign, along with the results of an opinion poll among Mexicans showing their extensive support for an increase in the cigarette tax. Also, the messages selected for dissemination were key to the success of the strategy. These included: 1. Higher tobacco taxes are a win/win scenario that leads to saving lives, discourages the initiation of smoking among youth, and generates more revenue for the government. 2. Every year, 60,000 Mexicans die from illnesses attributed to smoking. The government spends more than 45 billion pesos on the treatment of illnesses caused by smoking; however, revenues collected from tobacco taxes amount to only 24.8 billion pesos. 3. Seven out of ten Mexicans support an increase in tobacco taxes. 4. Vote for the health of Mexicans, vote for the increase in tobacco taxes. In addition to the above-mentioned elements, this strategy put constant pressure on legislators through the media, from the drafting process of the bill until its presidential sanction(more than a year later). The comprehensive campaign made use of both earned(press releases, public demonstrations, letters to public officials, etc.) and paid media(billboards, banner-ads etc.). As a result of the campaign, legislators voted overwhelmingly in favour of the tobacco tax(69.2% on the final sales price), increasing the votes in favour by almost 300% compared to those obtained before the campaign. From this experience, it can be concluded that media advocacy can be effective as part of a long-term, well planned and executed process, in which the integration of initiatives, skills and resources is achieved through clear, concise, evidence-based and multi-sectoral collaboration aimed achieving common goals. 179 178 Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids(2019). Mexico. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from https://www.tobaccofreekids.org/global-issues/mexico. 179 Lane, C.,& Carter, M.(2013). El papel de abogar en los medios de comunicación para la promoción de políticas de control del tabaco. In L. M. Reynales, J. F. Thrasher, E. Lazcano,& M. Hernández-Ávila(Eds.), Salud pública y tabaquismo: volumen I. Política pública para el control del tabaco en México. Cuernavaca Morelos México: Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública 75

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 12 NIAMBIE(TELL ME)(TANZANIA) Niambie is a citizen action project designed to inform young people about the political processes taking place in their country. Developed by BBC Media Action, this initiative seeks to support the youth of Tanzania so that they can play an active and constructive role in the country’s democratic processes. Strategies and messages Niambie 180 offers information and an interactive platform through a national radio show, accompanied by digital content production and social media. The project’s aim is not only to inspire young people to vote, but also to be well-informed and know their rights and responsibilities. Therefore the radio show features the voices and views of Tanzania’s youth who interact with each other, and with local leaders and elected officials. Initially, the programme focused on young people who would vote for the first time in the 2015 elections, particularly young women between the ages of 17 and 22. Key aspects The formative research and baseline construction phase of the programme provided important information on the barriers faced by the youth when trying to engage in political processes. As a result, it was recommended to share some examples of politically engaged young people who were similar to the target audience and who have achieved their dreams. It was also suggested that the programme should address common myths and provide clarity on democratic processes, as in many cases young people do not feel they know enough about this topic. In addition, the show regularly invited political leaders in order to reduce youth scepticism around decision-makers’ responsiveness, thus creating a platform for dialogue. Celebrities were also invited in order to reach a wider audience. Niambie fans continued the programme’s conversations on Facebook and Twitter and listened to episodes of the show on SoundCloud. Lastly, the project worked with high-profile media channels and organisations to promote the production of high quality information during election times. There were multiple workshops for editors to improve their ability to conduct a more reliable, accurate and balanced coverage of election processes that meets the needs of the audience. 180 The Communication Initiative(2015). Niambie Radio Project. Retrieved May 09, 2018, from http://www.comminit.com/africa/content/ niambie-radio-project. 76

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 13 SEARCH FOR COMMON GROUND(SOUTH SUDAN) Search for Common Ground(SFCG) is a non-governmental organisation focused on promoting dialogue, training the media, and supporting communities around the world on conflict resolution. Strategies and messages During their work in South Sudan, 181 the youngest and one of the poorest nations in the world, SFCG sought to promote social cohesion, resilience and peaceful resolution of conflicts among individuals and communities. Through strategic communication and dialogue, the organisation worked closely with youth and influential people at a community level, such as religious leaders, media organisations, civil society groups, and other influential partners. Key aspects In an evaluation carried out to gather evidence on the transformation of conflicts in the country, SFCG identified key points necessary for the development of a successful programme. It was considered vital to evaluate the context and conduct a conflict analysis to inform programme development. In order to ensure that the programmes are relevant and responsive to real needs, it was necessary to identify the structural factors that led to conflict in the first place – their causes, and the community’s responses to them. It is clear that different groups involved – leaders, youth, and religious authorities – have different needs, influence different areas of the community, and play different roles in an eventual peace process. Thinking about these factors, SFCG identified traditional dances, music, sports(football and fighting), religious events and schools as popular activities that provide natural opportunities for people to gather and discuss beyond existing divisions. It was also important to identify mechanisms to solve minor conflicts(dialogue, going to the police, or physically fighting), as well as the tools already existing in the communities to reduce existing gaps among their members. Another lesson learned in an earlier assessment was that creative strategies should be used to influence hard-to-reach communities and geographical locations. In a place like South Sudan, where many communities are inaccessible and some have been victims of forced displacement, the use of different media, radio in particular, can become a way to ensure people’s exposure to the programmes’ strategies. Other creative solutions include working in partnership with organisations present in more distant areas and mobilising local populations beyond the division lines. SFCG also supports identification of social and economic interests and concerns that affect the groups with whom they work, with the purpose of highlighting commonalities that can facilitate social cohesion. Above all, creating spaces for local communities to discover solutions to their conflicts by providing tools to take ownership of the process will always be much more sustainable than trying to impose a particular solution. The SFCG experience shows that it is important to construct credible and constructive narratives in order to involve different audiences. SFCG developed a radio programme called Hiwar al Shabab, which has become a platform for young people to discuss issues that affect them beyond ethnic and religious divisions. It has also used participatory theatre that focuses on recreating stories collected in the same place where they are presented, which enables the narrative of the show to be relevant to local communities and their residents. 181 Search for common Ground. South Sudan Projects. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from https://www.sfcg.org/tag/south-sudan-projects/. 77

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 14 EBOLA CONTROL IN LIBERIA In March 2014, the first cases of Ebola appeared in Lofa County, a community located in northern Liberia. Nine months into the epidemic, 724 cases of Ebola were recorded, of which 451 were recorded as deaths, including 16 cases of healthcare staff death. Strategies and messages Despite these numbers, Lofa County’s inhabitants remained in a state of denial for a long time and resisted external assistance by hiding the sick and burying the deceased in secret. At the beginning of the crisis, UNICEF offered support to the community of Barkedu, which in turn generated even more resistance and distrust. Considering that UNICEF was looking for ownership and acceptance among the community, it became clear that prevention activities should be designed from within the communities, involving tribal chiefs, religious leaders and influential individuals. ‘Two events were necessary for the communities to unite and begin to acknowledge the Ebola epidemic as a reality: first, the fact that their loved ones were dying, and secondly, the intervention of religious leaders who supported trust generation by advocating for preventive actions promoted by the central government.’ (Pastor John Korboi, Voinjama, Lofa County) Barkedu was the first community of Liberia to be quarantined in July 2014. Restrictions extended over a period of six months, with limited government support during the first three. It was during this period that the community decided to take the problem into their own hands by showing resilience and creativity through a series of measures, which included: 1. The creation of a task force of 18 youth, women, and community leaders in and around their own response system. This system was designed to identify suspicious cases immediately, isolate families and individuals, conduct safe and dignified funerals in record time, and reduce rumours thanks to community dialogues and door-to-door visits. 2. In order to facilitate the negotiation of safe funerals, 11 community members volunteered for this task. 3. Considering that specialised staff abandoned health centres, the local villagers set up their own isolation centre for Ebola patients. 4. Members of the community followed up with and monitored all visitors. During the quarantine period, the local population patrolled the borders and reduced access to the community. 5. Quarantined families were closely monitored and received the necessary support from the community, including food, hygiene items, medicines, and psychosocial support. 6. Traditional leaders suspended all secret ceremonies to prevent secret burials. As reliable members and role models for the community, religious leaders were the main force behind the response to the epidemic. Through their work with local authorities, youth and women, these leaders were able to organise dialogues, visit families from door to door and prepare sermons to address questions and reduce resistance. 78

ANNEXES Key aspects In this context, the UNICEF team and its partners decided to contribute to the community response in March 2014, by means of three specific actions: 1. Formally involving religious leaders: Since it was clear that imams and pastors had credibility with the communities, UNICEF decided to strengthen their capacity to mobilise communities with alternative media such as theatre, music, community dialogues and work with other leaders. The country’s religious leaders joined the National Health Team meetings, which facilitated the integration of actions at the local level. 2. Support for rapid response teams: UNICEF supported the Rapid Response Team in Lofa to ensure the development of cohesive and harmonious activities, avoiding duplication and supporting the involvement of social mobilisers to track contacts and investigate cases. 3. Reinforcement of community networks: UNICEF worked with multiple social networks to co-ordinate and create synergies among allies, including a network of Mobilisation Coordinators at the district level and another at the provincial level. These networks were created to facilitate work and monitor volunteer healthcare personnel, as well as motivate the adoption of healthy behaviours and practices. One of the most important lessons of this case is that the involvement of religious and traditional leaders is a critical element of a communication strategy in this context. UNICEF was able to generate effective and sustainable channels of collaboration that could last beyond this particular situation. These and further learnings on developing cross-cutting communications strategies can be found in UNICEF’s evaluation of its Ebola Control Campaign. 182 182 UNICEF(2017). Evaluation of UNICEF’s response to the Ebola outbreak in West Africa 2014–2015. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from United Nations Children’s Fund: https://www.unicef.org/evaluation/files/2232-UNICEF-Ebola_Eval_report_web.pdf. 79

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 15 BUSH RADIO(SOUTH AFRICA) Bush Radio 183 began broadcasting in the 1990s and has been called the‘mother of community radio in Africa’. 184 Based in Cape Town, it was founded by political activists who identified it not only as a community radio, but also as a collective of social programmes for development. Bush Radio uses radio as a means to support the creation of diverse communities in the post-apartheid era in South Africa. Moreover, Bush Radio is an organisation that works around complex and interacting structures that value the idea of community as a living and changing concept. Its programming includes spaces for children, as well as spaces focused on gender perspectives for both men and women, including: 185 • • Hello Bush Radio: This is the news programme of the station. Problems of interest for the organisation are discussed and listeners are invited to express their opinions. • • Community Law: This programme is presented by fourth and fifth year law students, tackling a different topic each week. They provide the community with factual information that is not usually accessible to the general population. • • Replicas: Representatives from various community organisations explain the role they play and how the community can access them. • • Ordinary people: A magazine format is used for this three-hour daily show. Emphasis is placed on the novelties of the population, local music, and public service announcements. • • TRC Report: Since the beginning of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission(TRC) hearings, the radio station has introduced a member of the commission every two weeks. The producer of the programme is Bushman BeatSenzile Khoisan, the TRC’s chief investigator. • • Africa on Time: This programme, a co-production sponsored by the University of the Western Cape, addresses current issues on the African continent. • • Taxi Talk: The oil company Shell finances this show, aimed at eliminating violence and crime, as well as promoting safety in transport to urban centres. Those who have been affected are invited to present and discuss their complaints on the radio. • • Prison Radio: Bush Radio assisted the Department of Criminology at the University of Cape Town to develop a training programme for youth convicted of different crimes to learn to operate a radio station inside the prison. Simultaneously, the station has dedicated great effort to the training of volunteers in charge of producing and presenting the shows. Topics included in this training include elaborating a programme schedule, administration and interviewing skills. 183 Bush Radio(2009). About. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from https://bushradio.wordpress.com/about/. 184 Mavhungu, Johanna(2009): Formative Target Audience Research: A Case Study of Five Community Radio Stations in South Africa. Grahamstown: Sol Plaatje Institute for Media Leadership, School of Journalism and Media Studies, Rhodes University. Accessible at: https://www.ru.ac.za/media/rhodesuniversity/content/spi/documents/Formative_Target_Audience_Research_low_res2.pdf. 185 The Communication Initiative.(2002). Bush Radio – South Africa. Retrieved from: http://www.comminit.com/la/node/15004. 80

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 16 KATHA MITHO SARANGIKO(SWEET STORIES OF THE SARANGI)(NEPAL) This is an initiative, supported by BBC Media Action, in Nepal that uses a variety of formats to engage its audience and address a wide range of issues, including violence against women. 186 Strategies and messages The weekly radio show Katha Mitho Sarangiko uses an unusual method of participation to create entertainment shows that recreate daily life situations:. As they travel through towns and villages throughout the country, the producers of Katha Mitho Sarangiko listen to the concerns and experiences of the people and then reconstruct these stories into a radio drama. They invite the same people later on to improvise their stories in the dialogues of the drama series, using local dialects. Katha Mitho Sarangiko has a sister magazine called Sarangiko Bhalakusari(Sarangi Chat), in which the topics discussed in the radio drama are taken up. In 2012, these issues included justice, agriculture and corruption. The thirty-minute drama is always animated by creative narratives produced by a Gandarbha, a nomadic musician who travels to different places with his sarangi(a traditional string instrument from Nepal). Since its first broadcast in 2008, Katha Mitho Sarangiko and Sarangiko Bhalakusari have built up an audience of over 5,2 million listeners. Key aspects Between 2010 and 2011, the show focused on gender conflicts. Through the stories of six women, each one developed in a different episode, the radio series addressed sensitive issues such as the trafficking of women, gang rape, dowry, violence, widow victimisation, and the joys and sorrows of being a teenager in the city. In 2012, the focus of the programme shifted to governance issues and explored topics such as the economic, social and legal problems faced by Nepal’s families on a daily basis. 186 See: https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where-we-work/asia/nepal/katha-mitho-sarangiko. Accessed October 15, 2018. 81

ANNEXES CASE STUDY 17 EAST LOS HIGH – SOCIAL MEDIA IN EDUTAINMENT-INTERVENTIONS(USA) East Los High is a television series that has been nominated for the Emmy Awards five times. With a mostly Latino cast and production team, the series focuses on issues affecting this community in the United States, including unplanned pregnancies, risky sexual behaviour, domestic violence, reproductive rights, and urban threats. The series was developed as a response to the high rates of teenage pregnancy among Latinas living in the United States. It portrays the experiences of young people in the city of Los Angeles attempting to navigate the high school experience. Produced by Wise Entertainment and Hulu, the series aims to empower young people to make smart decisions about their health and lifestyles. Strategies and messages East Los High follows the entertainment-education approach and uses the soap opera format to share social messages. Each season of the series includes 24 chapters, at the end of which the audience is invited to expand their experience of interaction with the series and to sustain the conversation through tools and resources(i.e. multiple online platforms including social media and smart phone applications). At the end of each episode, viewers are invited to visit the East Los High website 187 where they can access nine different extensions for interaction. For example, viewers can watch an extended version of a scene in which a doctor provides advice on the correct use of condoms. They can also access Ceci’s video blog. Ceci is a character in the series who fell pregnant as a teenager, and her blog allows for discussion around available resources for women living in similar situations. From the blog one can also access episodes of the series in which Ceci discusses her feelings, the changes in her body, and the socio-economic and cultural challenges she faces. Users can visit the East Los High Resource Centre, where they can find interactive maps to locate specialised clinics or click on external links to find additional resources. All these extensions are promoted through social networks like Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and Instagram, which the public can also use to interact with the characters. Lastly, all episodes are available through the Hulu web platform, enabling personalised access for users. Key aspects East Los High was framed from a culture-centric perspective, which means that members of the intended audience were actively involved in early stages of design and development. As a result, evaluation results showed‘wide audience reach, strong viewer engagement, and a positive cognitive, emotional, and social impact on sexual and reproductive health communication and education’ 188 in the first season. Social media provided important engagement data and offered a dynamic platform to connect services provided by institutions working with Latino/a adolescents and women in Los Angeles. 187 EastlosHigh(2019). Retrieved May 06, 2019, from www.eastloshigh.com. 188 Wang, H.& Singhal, A.(2016). East Los High: Transmedia Edutainment to Promote the Sexual and Reproductive Health of Young Latina/o Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 106(6). pp. 1002–1010 82