World Protests A Study of Key Protest Issues in the 21st Century Sara Burke Mohamed Berrada Hernán Saenz Cortés World Protests Isabel Ortiz · Sara Burke · Mohamed Berrada · Hernán Saenz Cortés World Protests A Study of Key Protest Issues in the 21st Century Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung New York; Initiative for Policy Dialogue/Global Social Justice Isabel Ortiz Global Social Justice, Initiative for Policy Dialogue New York, NY, USA Mohamed Berrada Economic Consultancy Casablanca, Morocco Sara Burke Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung New York, NY, USA Hernán Saenz Cortés OXFAM Brussels, Belgium ISBN 978-3-030-88512-0 ISBN 978-3-030-88513-7(eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7 JEL Classification: D74, D63, D7, F6, K38, I3, J5, J83, P16 © The Editor(s)(if applicable) and The Author(s) 2022. This book is an open access publication. 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Cover illustration:© Melisa Hasan This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Acknowledgements Thanks to José Antonio Ocampo(Professor of Professional Practice and Co-President of the Initiative for Policy Dialogue, Columbia University), to Michèle Auga(Executive Director Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung New York Office 2013–2015) and Michael Bröning(Executive Director FriedrichEbert-Stiftung New York Office 2020–present), as well as to Anya Schiffrin(Director of Journalism Programs, Initiative for Policy Dialogue, Columbia University) for their overall support and guidance. Additional thanks to Vicente Rubio, Cai Yiping, and Anna-Maria Heisig for their contribution of independent research in 2014–2015, which helped to deepen our database on protests. Authors would also like to thank the following people for participating in 2013–2015 policy dialogues on the implications of the research for national governments and international organizations: Krisztina Bombera, Pamela Brown, Nessa Ní Chasaide, Adham Aboul Einein, Pablo González, Amy Goodman, Chris Grove, Patrick Heller, Evan Henshaw-Plath, Naomi Hossain, Amin Husein, Ahmed Abou Hussein, Akshay Khanna, Wim Kok, Alnoor Ladha, Kalev Leetaru, Bruno Martorano, Clem McCartney, Lucia Nader, Paul O’Connell, Theodora Oikonomides, Jack Linchuan Qiu, Eduardo Romanos, Rodrigo Serrano, Nermeen Shaikh, Marina Sitrin, Nelini Stamp, Frances Stuart, Cassam Uteem, Sebastian Vielmas, Marcos Wasem, Justin Wedes, Amira Yahyaoui, Raúl Zambrano and Kenneth Zinn. Finally, special v vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS thanks to all the anonymous reviewers and to Donatella della Porta for their suggestions. Also to Michael Levitin, who—in the summer of 2020—posed many interesting questions about the 2006–2013 study while completing his book Generation Occupy. Contents 1 Introduction 1 1 Background 1 2 Methodology 4 3 Organization of the Book 7 References 10 2 An Analysis of World Protests 2006–2020 13 1 The World Awakens: Protests Increase 2006–2020 13 2 Main Grievances/Demands 15 3 Grievances/Demands on Failure of Political Representation and Political Systems 20 3.1 Real Democracy 21 3.2 Corruption 24 3.3 Justice 24 3.4 Sovereignty and Patriotic Issues 25 3.5 Transparency and Accountability 25 3.6 A“Deep Government”/Oligarchy 26 3.7 Anti-war Protests/Anti Military-Industrial Complex 26 3.8 Citizen Surveillance 26 3.9 Anti-socialism and Anti-communism 27 4 Grievances/Demands on Economic Justice/Anti-austerity 27 4.1 Jobs, Higher Wages and Labor Conditions 31 vii viii CONTENTS 4.2 Reform of Public Services 31 4.3 Corporate Influence/Deregulation/Privatization 31 4.4 Inequality 32 4.5 Tax/Fiscal Justice 32 4.6 Low Living Standards 33 4.7 Agrarian/Land Reform 33 4.8 Fuel and Energy Prices 34 4.9 Pension Reforms 34 4.10 Housing 35 4.11 Food Prices 35 5 Grievances/Demands on Civil Rights 36 5.1 Ethnic/Indigenous/Racial Justice 37 5.2 Right to the Commons 40 5.3 Deny Rights to Groups 40 5.4 Freedom of Assembly/Speech/Press 41 5.5 Women’s/Girls’ Rights 41 5.6 Labor Rights 42 5.7 LGBT/Sexual Rights 42 5.8 Immigrants’ Rights 42 5.9 Personal Freedoms 42 5.10 Prisoners’ Rights 43 5.11 Religious Rights 43 6 Grievances/Demands for Global Justice 43 6.1 Environment/Climate Justice 47 6.2 Anti-international Financial Institutions 47 6.3 Anti-imperialism 48 6.4 Anti-free Trade 48 6.5 Global Commons 49 6.6 Anti-G20 49 7 Who Protests? 49 7.1 Main Groups Leading Protests 2006–2020: From NGOs and Trade Unions to Hackers 49 7.2 Greater Grassroots Participation 50 8 Number of Demonstrators 52 8.1 Some of the Largest Protests in History 52 8.2 Protests and Civic Space 56 9 Methods of Protest 57 9.1 Marches and Protest Assemblies/Rallies 59 CONTENTS ix 9.2 Blockades, Occupations and Civil Disobedience/Direct Action 59 9.3 Strikes and Walkouts 59 9.4 Vandalism/Looting 60 9.5 Internet Activism and Whistleblowing/Leaks 61 9.6 Pot-Banging/Noisemaking, Street Music, Educational Events 61 9.7 Boycotts and Legal/Paralegal Methods 62 9.8 Hunger Strikes and Self-Inflicted Violence 62 10 Who Do Protesters Oppose? 63 10.1 Governments 63 10.2 Political/Economic System 63 10.3 Corporations/Employers 64 10.4 Elites 65 10.5 Political Parties 65 10.6 Military/Police 65 10.7 The European Union and European Central Bank(ECB) 65 10.8 The International Monetary Fund(IMF) and the World Bank 66 10.9 Financial Sector 66 10.10 The United States of America 67 11 What Do Protests Achieve? 67 12 Violence, Repression, and Surveillance 72 12.1 Limited but Increasing Protestors’ Violence 72 12.2 Increasing Repression and Surveillance of Protestors: Arrests, Injuries, and Deaths 74 References 79 3 Selected Key Issues in World Protests 83 1 Rising Populism and Radical Right Protests 83 1.1 From Left-Wing to Far-Right Populist Protests 83 1.2 Weaponizing Protests 87 2 Inequality 89 2.1 Inequality and Protests 89 2.2 Protests and the Perception That Governments Serve a Few 93 3 Protesting Against Corruption 94 4 Fighting for Women’s Rights 97 x CONTENTS 5 From the Arab Spring to the Latin America Spring: Ignored Economic Demands Lead to Political Dissent 99 6 Protests, Human Rights and Development Policies: What Governments Can Do 102 References 108 4 Conclusions 111 Reference 117 Annexes 119 Main References 175 Index 179 About the Authors Isabel Ortiz is director of the Global Social Justice Program at Joseph Stiglitz’s Initiative for Policy Dialogue, based at Columbia University, New York. Earlier she was director at the International Labor Organization(ILO Geneva, 2013–2019) and at UNICEF(New York, 2009– 2012); senior official at the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs(UN New York, 2005–2009) and at the Asian Development Bank(ADB Manila, 1995–2003), where she was a founding member of the ADB Poverty Reduction Unit. In 1993–1995 she was a researcher at the Department of International Economics of the High-Level Council of Scientific Research(CSIC Madrid) and a lecturer at Madrid and Salamanca Universities in Spain. In 1992–1993 she worked at the European Commission in Brussels and in 1991 at the UN Economic Commission for Latin America(ECLAC Buenos Aires). Isabel Ortiz has worked in more than 50 countries in all world regions, providing advisory services to governments and engaging in high level initiatives at the United Nations, G20, BRICS, African Union and UNASUR, among others. Additionally, she actively supports policy advocacy work of civil society organizations. She has a M.Sc. and a Ph.D. from the London School of Economics, and has written more than 80 publications translated in several languages. Sara Burke is a senior expert on the global economy and international financial institutions at the German think tank, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Based in the New York office since 2008, she provides policy analysis xi xii ABOUT THE AUTHORS and advice on economic policy frameworks and the multilateral system, as well as on their social and political impacts. Prior to that, in 2003 she founded and co-edited Gloves Off, a webzine with an economic lens, linking current and historical events. She has published a number of papers on economic and social rights. She has an M.A. from Stanford University and a B.A. from Reed College. Mohamed Berrada is an economics consultant and entrepreneur. Besides starting and managing a gym in Casablanca, his main research focuses on the long-term impact of colonialism on development. He is a Fulbright scholar and Ph.D. candidate at the New School for Social Research, New York. He has worked on research projects relating to protest movements, inequality, colonialism, and economic development. Hernán Saenz Cortés is an International Relations Ph.D. from Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, with ample experience both in research and policy analysis. His main research interests are power relations and its impact on governance, development and finance with a focus on Latin America. He has worked for different NGOs, think tanks and Private Foundations. From 2009 to 2013 he was the Policy and Advocacy Manager at the UBUNTU-World Forum of Civil Society Networks in Barcelona. In 2014, he worked as consultant for different organizations such as the Overseas Development Institute(ODI, London), and became Senior Policy Analyst on Tax Justice and Financing at EURODAD(Brussels, 2014–2017). From 2017, he works as a Senior Researcher on Inequality and Tax and as Advocacy Coordinator on European Union—Latin America relations at Oxfam. Acronyms COVID-19 CSO ECB FEMEN FES G20 GMO IFIs IMF LGBT NAFTA NATO NGO OECD PEA PEGIDA TTIP TTP UN UNASUR UNFCCC VAT WSF Corona-Virus Disease of 2019 Civil Society Organization European Central Bank Radical Feminist Group(Ukrainian: F e m e n ) Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung/Foundation Group of 20 Genetically Modified Organism International Financial Institutions International Monetary Fund Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgendered people North American Free Trade Agreement North Atlantic Treaty Organization Non-Governmental Organization Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Protest Event Analysis Patriotic Europeans Against the Islamization of the Occident (German: Patriotische Europäer gegen die Islamisierung des Abendlandes) Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership Trans-Pacific Partnership United Nations Union of South American Nations(Spanish: Unión de Naciones Suramericanas) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Value Added Tax World Social Forum xiii List of Figures Chapter 1 Fig. 1 List and map of countries covered in the study, 2006–2020 ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/[Covered countries are darkened]) 5 Chapter 2 Fig. 1 Number of protests by grievance/demand topics, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests. org/) 17 Fig. 2 Number of protests by main grievance/demand from year 2006 to 2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests. org/) 19 Fig. 3 Protests failures of political representation/political systems by income group 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 20 Fig. 4 Map of protests on failure of political representation and political systems, 2006–2020( Source https:// worldprotests.org/) 23 xv xvi LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 5 Grievances/demands arising from the failure of political representation/systems by year, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 23 Fig. 6 Protests for economic justice/against austerity by income group, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https:// worldprotests.org/) 28 Fig. 7 Map of protests on economic justice and anti-austerity, 2006–2020( Source https://worldprotests.org/) 30 Fig. 8 Grievances/demands on economic justice/against austerity by year, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https:// worldprotests.org/) 30 Fig. 9 Protest for civil rights by country income group, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests. org/) 36 Fig. 10 Map of protests on civil rights, 2006–2020( Source https://worldprotests.org/) 39 Fig. 11 Grievances/demands on civil rights by Year, 2006–2020 ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 39 Fig. 12 Protest for global justice by country income group, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests. org/) 44 Fig. 13 Map of protests on global justice, 2006–2020( Source https://worldprotests.org/) 46 Fig. 14 Grievances/demands on global justice by year, 2006–2020 ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 46 Fig. 15 Main groups leading protests by region, 2006–2020 ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 51 Fig. 16 Number of protests and civic space(Legend: CIVICUS Rank is 1: Open freer society; 2: Narrowed; 3: Obstructed; 4: Repressed; 5: Closed( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and CIVICUS 2020b) 57 Fig. 17 Methods of protests 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 58 LIST OF FIGURES xvii Fig. 18 Main targets of world protests, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 64 Fig. 19 Number of protests and achievements by year, 2006–2020 ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 67 Fig. 20 Achievements by targeted opponent, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 70 Fig. 21 Riots and violent protests, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 74 Fig. 22 Reported repression of protests, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 76 Chapter 3 Fig. 1 Radical right protests: demands/grievances correlated with the denying of rights, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 85 Fig. 2 Inequality and protests in high-income countries( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) 90 Fig. 3 Inequality and protests in middle-income countries, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) 91 Fig. 4 Inequality and protests in low-income countries, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) 91 Fig. 5 Protests in countries with increasing inequality, 2006–2020 ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) 92 Fig. 6 Protests in countries with decreasing inequality, 2006–2020 ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) 93 Fig. 7 Protests and the perception that governments serve the few ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Alliance of Democracies& Dalia Research, 2020) 94 xviii LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 8 Protests against corruption, 5-year periods, 2006–2020 ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 see: https://worldprotests.org/) 95 Fig. 9 Protests against corruption per region, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 see: https://worldprotests.org/) 95 Fig. 10 Map of protests against corruption and for real democracy, 2006–2020( Source https://worldprotests.org/) 97 Fig. 11 Protests for women rights, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 see: https://worldprotests.org/) 98 Fig. 12 Main grievances per region 2006–2020 101 List of Tables Chapter 2 Table 1 Number of protests in 2006–2020 14 Table 2 Number of protests by country income groups, 2006–2020 15 Table 3 Number of protests by region, 2006–2020 16 Table 4 Protests against the failure of political representation/political systems by region, 2006–2020 22 Table 5 Protests for economic justice/against austerity by country region, 2006–2020 29 Table 6 Protests for civil rights by region, 2006–2020 38 Table 7 Protests for global justice by region, 2006–2020 45 Table 8 Main groups leading protests 2006–2020 50 Table 9 Largest protests 2006–2020. Crowd estimates—more than 1 million demonstrators(selected protests) 53 Table 10 Reported repression of protests, 2006–2020 75 Table 11 Protests with high numbers of reported arrests, injuries and deaths 2006–2020 77 Chapter 3 Table 1 Main human rights and development policy demands from world protesters 2006–2020 103 xix CHAPTER 1 Introduction Abstract The Introduction of“World Protests: A Study of Key Protest Issues in the 21st Century” provides the background and methodology of the study, including the countries covered. It also describes the structure of the volume chapter by chapter, from protestors’ demands and methods to achievements and repression, guiding the reader through the content of the book. An annex presents 250 methods of non-violent protest. Keywords Protests · Social movements · Democracy · Crisis · Civil rights · Human rights · Social justice 1 Background The two first decades of the twenty-first century saw an increasing number of protests around the world. From Africa to Europe, from the Americas to Asia, people have taken to the streets demanding real democracy, jobs, better public services, civil rights, social justice, and an end to abuse, corruption and austerity, among many other demands. What these protests have in common—regardless of where they take place geographically or where their demonstrators are on the political spectrum—are © The Author(s) 2022 1 I. Ortiz et al., World Protests, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7_1 2 I. ORTIZ ET AL. failures of democracy and of economic and social development, fueled by discontent and a lack of faith in the official political processes. The main findings of this study indicate that social unrest rose in every region during the period covered. This book presents the results of a protest event analysis 1 undertaken in 2013 and 2020 by a team of four researchers. 2 The study analyzes data on 2809 protests, which made up more than 900 protest movements. These took place in 101 countries, and a great number of protests also crossed international boundaries. The research compiles data from 15 years of news reports available online, mainly in six languages (Arabic, English, French, German, Portuguese, and Spanish, although some research was contributed referencing news reports in Mandarin and Hindi) and published between January 2006 and December 2020. These reports covered a variety of protests, from demonstrations and strikes, to the campaigns of social and political movements, to unorganized crowd actions such as riots. 3 This publication contributes to the analysis of protests in several ways. It expands the mapping of protests in the period 2006–2020 beyond non-violent protests(Leakey, 2013) and beyond English language bigdata mining databases(Leetaru& Schrodt, 2013) as well as expanding the amount of information and the period covered by other websites such as the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Global Protests Tracker. 4 This publication also provides new insights on areas earlier developed by scholars investigating who protests(Chen& Suen, 2017; della Porta, 2017), why(Barrett& Chen, 2021; Brannen et al., 2020; Brancati, 2016; Caren et al., 2017; Carothers& Youngs, 2015), methods of protests(Leakey, 2013; Sharp, 1973) and other issues. 1 Protest event analysis(PEA) is a research method developed by sociologists over the past few decades to map, analyze and interpret occurrences and properties of large numbers of protests by means of content analysis, via sources such as newspaper reports (Koopmans& Rucht, 2002). 2 This book updates earlier work presented in Ortiz et al.(2013). 3 Excluded from the research sample are those periods when protests escalate into armed conflicts in certain countries(e.g. Libya, Syria, Yemen); however, we have included protests in earlier years in these countries. 4 The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Global Protests Tracker focuses exclusively on major antigovernment protests since 2017, drawn from English-language news sources; it excludes rallies in support of political and personal causes. See: https://car negieendowment.org/publications/interactive/protest-tracker(last accessed on 4.8.2021). 1 INTRODUCTION 3 Many have questioned why the world has been increasingly shaken by protests in recent years. Some authors have pointed to the enabling role played by rising protests in the preservation of civic space (CIVICUS, 2020a, 2020b), the development of communication technologies(Carothers& Youngs, 2015; Qureshi, 2017) and the political use of disinformation(Brannen et al., 2020). These are all important factors, though not all carry the same weight. Structural factors like economic change and democratic regression are necessary to fully explain the surge in protests(Carothers& Youngs, 2015; Caren et al., 2017; Economist Intelligence Unit, 2020). From Marx to Tocqueville, authors have written about unequal structural conditions and consciousness of injustice as crucial factors for protests and rebellion. Today, inequality is staggering, estimated to be the highest in history(United Nations, 2020; Oxfam, 2020, 2021). Four decades of neoliberal policies have generated more inequality and have eroded incomes and welfare for both lower and middle classes(della Porta, 2017; OECD, 2019; Ortiz& Cummins, 2019; Puschra& Burke, 2013; Schiffrin& Kircher-Allen, 2012; United Nations, 2020). Additionally, the world is experiencing the unrest effects of the COVID-19 pandemic (Barrett& Chen, 2021; Sedik& Xu, 2020). Our analysis shows that the number of demonstrations has increased steadily since 2006 and that protests have become more political due to disappointment with malfunctioning democracies, frustration with politicians, and a lack of trust in governments. By 2020, there were fewer protests about a specific issue(e.g., an education policy reform) and more “omnibus protests” in which demonstrators raised demands related to many issues. Not surprisingly, the most prevalent demand of protesters around the world in the period 2006–2020 was for“real democracy.” Since almost three thousand protests were reviewed in this study, they were classified into four main categories, by descending frequency of occurrence:(i) protests related to the failure of political representation/political systems, focused on a lack of real democracy, corruption and other grievances;(ii) against economic injustice and austerity reforms; (iii) for civil rights, from indigenous/racial rights to women’s rights and personal freedoms; and(iv) protests for global justice and a better international system for all, instead of the few. An innovation of the book is in the statistics and graphs presented on these and other points of focus, and the numerous examples from all world regions. 4 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Who protests? Recent research shows the increasing participation of the middle classes in protests, both in high-income and developing countries(Chen& Suen, 2017; della Porta, 2017). Our study confirms the increasing involvement of unorganized citizens, grassroots movements, and young and old persons. People have taken to the streets in the Arab Spring, the Indignados(Outraged) and“yellow vests” movements of Europe, the Occupy movement in the United States, and in the Estallido Social(Social Upraising) in Chile and other countries in Latin America. Trade unions continue to be a major organizing power, leading some of the largest protests in history. What methods do protesters use? Our research identifies 250 methods of protest, presented in Annex B, updating the pioneering study of 198 methods of nonviolent action by Gene Sharp(1973). Based on our research and given the technological leap that has been ongoing since the 1970s, we have been able to identify more than fifty new methods from recent experiences, such as digital and online activism. Peaceful protests are a fundamental aspect of a vibrant democracy. Historically, protests have been a means to achieve fundamental rights at the national and international level(Tilly, 1978; United Nations, 2012). However, protesters confront repression in many countries. The link between protests and repression, or how governments react violently or with legal actions to quell protests, is well documented(see for instance, Davenport& Armstrong, 2004; INCLO, 2013). Governments, as the legitimate policy-making institutions responsible to their citizens, are the most frequent target for protesters. Governments react in diverse ways, sometimes repressing protests and sometimes conceding fully or partially to protestors’ demands. The book examines both repression by governments, as well as protestors’ successful achievement of policy goals from governments during the period 2006–2020. 2 Methodology The study investigates protests in 101 countries and territories representing 93% of world population 5 (Fig. 1), setting each event in time and place and identifying a number of other properties, including: main grievances/demands, who is protesting, what protest methods they use, 5 Based on 2020 data contained in United Nations(2019). Algeria Angola Argen Ɵ na Australia Bangladesh Belarus Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Cameroon Canada Chad Chile China Colombia Global Croa Ɵ a Czech Republic Democra Ɵ c Republic of Congo Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Ethiopia France Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Hai Ɵ Honduras Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Ireland Israel Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kosovo Kyrgyzstan Lebanon Libya Macedonia Madagascar Malaysia Mali Mauritania Mexico Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Myanmar 1 INTRODUCTION 5 Nepal Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Oman Pakistan Pales Ɵ ne, Occupied Territory Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Singapore Slovenia Somalia South Africa South Korea Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Syria Tanzania Thailand Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States of America Uzbekistan Vietnam Western Sahara Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe Fig. 1 List and map of countries covered in the study, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https:// worldprotests.org/[Covered countries are darkened]) 6 I. ORTIZ ET AL. who their opponents/targets are, and what were the results of the protests, including achievements and repression. The objective of the study is to document and characterize major protests from two years prior to the onset of the 2008 global financial crisis to the end of 2020, to examine protest trends globally, regionally and according to country-income levels, and to present the main grievances and demands of protesters in order to better understand the drivers of social unrest. The study references the media sources and data presented in the interactive World Protests website(https://worldprotests.org/), developed by the authors with support from the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) and Global Social Justice/Initiative for Policy Dialogue. In order to control for bias in the selection of news sources, a widely recognized challenge within the protest-event analysis framework, this study includes at least one internationally or regionally recognized media source per protest (e.g., BBC News, CNN, Al Jazeera, Le Monde, El Pais, The New York Times, and similar sources in the six main languages used for research: Arabic, English, French, German, Portuguese, and Spanish), augmented by at least one local or independent news, academic, or organizational source. This strategy for overcoming selectivity bias nevertheless does not fully represent all protests taking place, nor can the strategy compensate for the fact that international sources are more readily available online for the whole period, while national and especially local sources are less accessible via the Internet the older they are(Klandermans& Staggenborn, 2002). The representation of protest movements in our database is weighed by their duration in time. We follow 906 protest movements or episodes 6 around the globe, which are responsible for thousands of protest events. To simplify, we have marked each active year of an episode as one event: this leads to 2809 protests events overall, which places this database and its results at a mid-point between the automated, big-data query databases such as the GDELT project 7 and the analytical movement analysis method that can be found in projects such as the Global Nonviolent 6 We use the word episode when referring to an entire period to avoid confusion with the usual understanding of movement as one organized group, an episode can have multiple movements fighting towards the same goal, that is especially relevant in the case of omnibus protests. 7 The GDELT Project. https://www.gdeltproject.org/(last accessed on 3.8.2021). 1 INTRODUCTION 7 Action Database. 8 Our approach has enabled us to track movements in meaningful detail while at the same time presenting general statistics as to why, how, who and where people protest at the aggregate level. Please refer to the Annex A for further notes on the methodology and statistical methods used. 3 Organization of the Book For ease of comprehension, this book has a straightforward structure in which two central chapters are distinguished. The main core of the book is the analysis of data to understand who protests, why and how they protest, as well as documenting achievements and fallbacks. The last part of the book looks at selected key issues, such as the rise of populism and radical right protests; protests and inequality, women and corruption; the main protests by region and understanding how protestors’ demands link to Human Rights and development policies. A summary concluding chapter closes the book. This introductory chapter has focused on a brief review of the literature and methodology and outlines the rest of the book. Chapter 2 presents the analysis of world protests 2006–2020. Section 1 in Chapter 2 starts by an overview, the aggregated numbers of protests by year and world regions. Sections 2 to 6 in Chapter 2 analyze the main grievances and demands of protesters in the period 2006–2020, and how they evolve over time. Section 3 focuses on the most numerous cluster of protests, those due to failures of political representation and political systems, such as grievances related to a lack of real democracy; corruption; a failure to receive justice from the legal system; sovereignty and patriotic issues; transparency and accountability; the perceived power of a deep government or oligarchy; preventing war and restraining the military industrial complex; the surveillance of citizens, as well as anti-socialism and anti-communism. Section 4 in Chapter 2 centers on grievances against economic injustice and austerity reforms; this second most numerous cluster includes protests caused by inadequate jobs, wages and/or labor conditions; reforms of public services; corporate influence, deregulation and privatization; inequality; tax and fiscal justice; low living standards; agrarian/land 8 The Global Nonviolent Action Database. See https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu(last accessed on 3.8.2021). 8 I. ORTIZ ET AL. reform; high fuel and energy prices; pension reform; housing and high food prices. Section 5 in Chapter 2 presents the third most numerous cluster, civil rights’ demands in areas such as ethnic/indigenous/racial rights; a right to the commons(digital, land, cultural, atmospheric); freedom of assembly, speech and press; women and girls’ rights; labor rights; the rights of lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgendered people(LGBT); immigrant rights; personal freedoms; prisonersrights and religious issues. This cluster also includes protests that sought to deny rights or reject equal rights for a group(e.g., against minorities such as migrants), generally linked to radical right protests. Section 6 in Chapter 2 concentrates on demands for global justice, such as for environmental and climate justice; also grievances against the International Monetary Fund(IMF), the World Bank, the European Union and the European Central Bank(ECB) and other International Financial Institutions(IFIs), against imperialism; against free trade; in defense of the global commons; and against the Group of 20(G20). After the presentation of the main grievances and demands of protestors, each of the central sections of the book examines key aspects of world protests in the period 2006–2020. Section 7 in Chapter 2 analyzes who the main groups leading protests are, such as non-governmental organizations(NGOs) or civil society organizations(CSOs), grassroots, political parties/movements, workers’ unions, students/youth, indigenous/racial groups, unorganized workers, religious groups, women/feminist groups, hackers, employers’ organizations and prisoners. Section 8 in Chapter 2 centers on the numbers of protestors in events, noting the problem of crowd estimates that are very different depending on the source. The protests included in this study have involved numbers ranging from a few hundred protestors to millions of demonstrators— more than 50 protests events in the period involved millions of people. The chapter also analyzes whether the increasing number of protestors and protests is enabled by improved civic space, civic conditions and political freedoms. Section 9 presents the wide range of methods to protest commonly used in the period 2006–2020, such as marches and protest assemblies, blockades, occupations and other kinds of civil disobedience/direct action; internet activism and whistleblowing/leaks; vandalism and looting; strikes and walkouts; pot-banging/noisemaking, street music, 1 INTRODUCTION 9 educational events; boycotts and legal/paralegal methods; hunger strikes and self-inflicted violence. Examples of each method are provided in the chapter. Additionally, Annex B presents a systematic list of 250 non-violent protest methods. Section 10 in Chapter 2 looks at who protestors oppose. Just as key objectives of this research are to find out who is protesting(and how and why), it is also important to identify the main targets, or opponents, of the protests. The most frequent target for protesters, by a wide margin, is their own national government; other targets include institutions unaccountable to people such as corporations, the military, the financial sector, the European Union/ECB, the IMF and World Bank, as well as the United States of America’s and China’s imperialism. Section 11 in Chapter 2 analyzes the achievements of protests, and the conditions for successful outcomes. Section 12 documents both violence by protestors as well as state-organized violence and repression in the form of arrests, injuries, and deaths. These two sections close Chapter 2 of the book. Chapter 3 of the volume focuses on selected key issues. Section 1 in Chapter 3 brings attention to the rise of populism and radical right protests, looking at the shift from anti-authoritarian left-wing populist protests to authoritarian, far-right populist protests. The chapter reviews the traits of radical right protests across the world. Section 2 in Chapter 3 looks at the relation between inequality and protests, examining inequality Gini coefficients(after tax and benefits) and protests, with trend lines showing that there are more protests in countries with increasing inequality, and vice versa, fewer protests in countries where inequality is being reduced. The chapter also analyzes data on democratic perceptions and looks at the correlation between the percentage of people who believe that governments serve the few, and the number of protests per country. Section 3 in Chapter 3 presents a deeper look at corruption and protests, and Section 4 at protests for women’s rights. The subsequent Section 5 takes a regional perspective, reviewing protests from the Arab Spring to the recent“Latin America Spring” and showing how ignored economic demands lead to political dissent. Finally, Section 6 in Chapter 3 evidences how the large majority of demands that protestors put to policymakers are in full accordance 10 I. ORTIZ ET AL. with Human Rights and internationally-agreed United Nations development goals. The book closes with summary conclusions, calling on governments to listen and act on the messages coming from protesters. References Barrett, P.,& Chen, S.(2021). Social repercussions of pandemics(IMF Working Paper 21/21). Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund. Brancati, D.(2016). Democracy protests: Origins, features, and significance. Cambridge University Press. Brannen, S., Haig, C.,& Schmidt, K.(2020). The age of mass protests: Understanding an escalating global trend. Center for Strategic and International Studies(CISS). Caren, N., Gaby, S.,& Herrold, C.(2017). Economic breakdown and collective action. Social Problems, 64(1), 133–155. Carothers, T.,& Youngs, R.(2015). The complexities of global protests. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Chen, H.,& Suen, W.(2017). Aspiring for change: A theory of middle class activism. The Economic Journal, 127(603), 1318–1347. 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Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. CHAPTER 2 An Analysis of World Protests 2006–2020 Abstract This section of the book“World Protests: A Study of Key Protest Issues in the 21st Century” analyzes in-depth 2809 protests that occurred between 2006 and 2020 in 101 countries covering over 93% of the world population. This section focuses on:(i) major grievances and demands driving world protests, such as the failure of political representation/systems, anti-austerity, and for civil rights and global justice; (ii) who was demonstrating;(iii) what protest methods they used;(iv) who the protestors opposed;(v) what was achieved; and(vi) violence and repression in terms of arrests, injuries, and deaths. Keywords Protests · Social movements · Riots · Democracy · Austerity · Civil rights · Social justice · Human rights · Repression 1 The World Awakens: Protests Increase 2006 – 2020 There are times in history when large numbers of people protest about the way things are, demanding change. It happened in 1830–1848, in 1917–1924, in the 1960s, and it is happening again today(Schiffrin& Kircher-Allen, 2012). Since 2010, the world has been shaken by protests. Our analysis of 2809 events reflects an increasing number of protests from 2006 to 2020. Protests occur in all world regions(Table 1) and © The Author(s) 2022 13 I. Ortiz et al., World Protests, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7_2 14 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Table 1 Number of protests in 2006–2020 2006–2010 2011–2015 2016–2020 Total East Asia and Pacific 98 Europe and Central Asia 119 Latin America and the Caribbean 92 Middle East and North Africa 53 North America 44 South Asia 26 Sub-Saharan Africa 76 Global Protests 68 Total 576 144 319 164 85 111 37 138 83 1081 136 368 171 70 126 38 155 88 1152 378 806 427 208 281 101 369 239 2809 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests. org/ across all country income levels 1 (Table 2). The study found a greater prevalence of protests in middle-income countries(1327 events) and high-income countries(1122 protests) than in low-income countries(121 events). 2 There are also a number of international and global protests 3 that happened in multiple countries simultaneously, and their number also keeps increasing steadily over the years(239 protests). With regards to the regional distribution of protests(Tables 1 and 3), Europe and Central Asia is the most active area(806 protests) in the period 2006–2020, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean (427 protests), East Asia/Pacific(378 protests), Sub-Saharan Africa(369 1 Country income group and regional classifications are taken from World Bank data sets, which use gross national income(GNI) per capita to classify every economy as either low-income, middle-income(subdivided into lower middle and upper middle), or high-income. 2 The lower numbers in low income countries may be due to lesser civic participation because of hardship and more difficult living conditions or perhaps due to there being fewer international reports of protests in low income countries, and the fact that local sources are less accessible via the Internet the older they are(Klandermans& Staggenborn, 2002), as discussed in the methodology section. 3 Since not all protests occur in a single country, income group, or region, the category “Global” has been added to the analysis of protests by country-income and region to reflect rising numbers of internationally-organized protests(239) which are due to both the increased ease of organizing across borders, growing awareness of the impact of undemocratic international organizations such as the G20 or the IMF, and the need for coordinated global action to solve issues such as climate change. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 15 Table 2 Number of protests by country income groups, 2006–2020 High-income Upper middle income Lower middle income Low income Global protests Total 2006 15 26 20 1 11 73 2007 28 26 33 2 12 101 2008 29 38 32 6 14 119 2009 46 33 24 5 16 124 2010 56 48 35 5 15 159 2011 80 61 49 8 18 216 2012 95 69 50 9 20 243 2013 103 60 46 10 18 237 2014 89 44 35 10 14 192 2015 88 47 34 11 13 193 2016 86 54 39 10 13 202 2017 93 52 45 11 17 218 2018 101 60 46 12 19 238 2019 106 59 51 9 18 243 2020 107 60 51 12 21 251 Total 1122 737 590 121 239 2809 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests. org/ protests), North America(281 protests), the Middle East and North Africa(208 protests) and South Asia(101 protests). Because this study collected and organized information primarily by country, those regions with more countries tend to have a greater number of protests, and those regions with fewer countries(e.g., North America comprises only three countries; South Asia, seven) show a slightly lesser number of protests, although researchers tried to offset this by greater sensitivity to recording more within-country protests in world-geographical regions with fewer countries. 2 Main Grievances/Demands The 2809 protest events analyzed in this study can be classified into four different main categories related to the grievances and demands raised, and therefore to the issues that generated them:(i) failure of the political system;(ii) economic justice and anti-austerity;(iii) civil rights;(iv) global justice. These are summarized below and in Fig. 1, and are presented in Table 3 Number of protests by region, 2006–2020 East Asia Pacific Europe Central Asia Latin America & Caribbean Middle East & N. Africa North America South Asia 2006 11 11 13 6 6 5 2007 17 18 15 12 7 5 2008 21 21 19 12 7 4 2009 22 29 19 9 11 4 2010 27 40 26 14 13 8 2011 34 55 35 23 16 7 2012 31 68 37 23 23 9 2013 32 76 34 14 24 10 2014 24 62 27 14 22 5 2015 23 58 31 11 26 6 2016 27 64 32 12 20 7 2017 26 70 32 10 24 9 2018 26 79 36 15 26 6 2019 29 78 37 16 27 7 2020 28 77 34 17 29 9 Total 378 806 427 208 281 101 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/ Sub-Saharan Africa 10 15 21 14 16 28 32 29 24 25 27 30 31 31 36 369 Global Protests Total 11 73 12 101 14 119 16 124 15 159 18 216 20 243 18 237 14 192 13 193 13 202 17 218 19 238 18 243 21 251 239 2809 16 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 17 Real Democracy Corrup Ɵ on Jus Ɵ ce Sovereignty/Patrio Ɵ c Issues Transparency and Accountability Deep Government/Oligarchy An Ɵ-War/Military-Industrial Complex Ci Ɵ zen Surveillance An Ɵ socialism/communism FAILURE OF POLITICAL REPRESENTATION Jobs/Wages/Labor Condi Ɵ ons Reform of Public Services Corporate In fl uence/Deregula Ɵ on/Priva Ɵ za Ɵ on Inequality Tax/Fiscal Jus Ɵ ce Low Living Standards Agrarian/Land Reform Fuel and Energy Prices Pension Reform Housing Food Prices ECONOMIC JUSTICE AND ANTI-AUSTERITY Ethnic/Indigenous/Racial Jus Ɵ ce Rights to the commons Freedom of Assembly/Speech/Press Deny Rights/Reject Equal Rights for a Group Women's/Girls' Rights Labor Rights LGBT/Sexual Rights Immigrant Rights Personal Freedoms Prisoners' Rights Religious Rights RIGHTS Environment/Climate Jus Ɵ ce An Ɵ-Interna Ɵ onal Financial Ins Ɵ tu Ɵ ons An Ɵ-Imperialism An Ɵ-Free Trade Global Commons An Ɵ-G20 GLOBAL JUSTICE 558 410 264 244 208 181 103 25 517 478 418 347 339 283 181 136 97 85 73 396 299 211 211 207 199 131 121 76 75 71 96 71 37 359 319 263 0 200 400 600 779 897 800 1000 1200 1503 1484 1360 1400 1600 Fig. 1 Number of protests by grievance/demand topics, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https:// worldprotests.org/) 18 I. ORTIZ ET AL. more detail in the following sections. Note that for most protests, more than one grievance and more than one demand are involved. This means the categories of grievances and demands are not mutually exclusive: each protest event was“tagged” with the full set of grievances/demands found to have contributed to it. • Failure of Political Representation and Political Systems: 1503 protests were on focused on a lack of real democracy; corruption; a failure to receive justice from the legal system; sovereignty and patriotic issues; transparency and accountability; the perceived power of a deep government or oligarchy; preventing war and restraining the military industrial complex; the surveillance of citizens, as well as anti-socialism and anti-communism. • Economic Justice and Anti-Austerity: 1484 protests were focused on issues related to jobs, wages and/or labor conditions; reform of public services; corporate influence, deregulation and privatization; inequality; tax and fiscal justice; low living standards; agrarian/land reform; high fuel and energy prices; pension reform; housing and high food prices. • Civil Rights: 1360 protests were for ethnic/indigenous/racial rights; a right to the commons(digital, land, cultural, atmospheric); freedom of assembly, speech and press; women and girls’ rights; labor rights; the LGBT rights; immigrant rights; personal freedoms; prisonersrights and religious issues. This category also includes protests that sought to deny rights or reject equal rights for a group (e.g., against minorities). • Global Justice: 897 protests were for environmental and climate justice; against the IMF, the World Bank, the European Union/ECB, and other IFIs, against imperialism(United States, China); against free trade; in defense of the global commons; and against the G20. How did these grievances evolve over time? Fig. 2 presents the number of protests by main grievance/demand. Beginning in 2006, there is a steady rise in overall protests each year up to 2020. Though generalizing is difficult, as the global financial crisis begins to unfold in 2007–2008, we observe an initial jump in the number of protests. Protests intensified with the end of fiscal stimulus and the adoption of austerity cuts 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 19 Fig. 2 Number of protests by main grievance/demand from year 2006 to 2020 ( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) and cost-saving reforms worldwide after 2010, and they then peaked in 2012–2013. Protestors were primarily demonstrating for economic justice and anti-austerity reforms in the 2010–2014 period. Unresolved grievances, few decent jobs, poor social protection and public services, and failures of agrarian and tax justice, caused protests to become more political, sparking a new wave of protests staring in 2016, catalyzed by failures of democracies. Since 2016, protests have escalated, often becoming “omnibus protests”(protesting on multiple issues) against the political and economic system. Decades of neoliberal policies have generated more inequality, eroded incomes and welfare to both the lower and the middle classes, fueling frustration and feelings of injustice, disappointment with malfunctioning democracies and failures of economic and social development, and a lack of trust in governments. In 2020, the coronavirus pandemic has accentuated social unrest. Protests linked to civil rights also show a sharp rise throughout the covered period as well, mainly due to the presence of large demonstrations for indigenous and racial rights, women’s rights, freedom of press/speech, and the right to the commons. In recent years, a number of radical right groups have also protested against minorities, for patriotic matters, and for personal freedoms(e.g., refusing to stay home or to wear 20 I. ORTIZ ET AL. masks during the COVID-19 pandemic). Global-justice related protests increase in the period, but at a more moderate rate than the other categories, with a slowdown after the peak was reached in 2012–2013. The following sections of the book present details on each of these main areas of grievances/demands. 3 Grievances/Demands on Failure of Political Representation and Political Systems Our study shows the most consistent reason for people around the world to protest is the perceived failure of democracies. About 54% of all protests considered between 2006 and 2020(a total of 1503 protest events overall) relate to a failure of political representation and of political systems. This is the case not only in countries with autocratic governments, or in low-income countries, where 53% of protests were due to a failure of government to provide needed services, justice, and accountability, but also in high-income countries, where more than 48% of protests were related to a failure of political representation, as well as in over 61% of the protests in upper-middle-income countries(Fig. 3). High Income Upper Middle Income Lower Middle Income Low Income Global Protests Real Democracy Corrup Ɵ on Jus Ɵ ce Sovereignty/Patrio Ɵ c Issues Transparency and Accountability Deep Government/Oligarchy An Ɵ-War/Military-Industrial Complex Ci Ɵ zen Surveillance An Ɵ socialism/communism 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Fig. 3 Protests failures of political representation/political systems by income group 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 21 Formal representative democracies are perceived around the world as having served the elites instead of the people. A deep crisis in political representation is felt and articulated even by average citizens(e.g., the middle classes) who do not consider themselves social or political activists (Puschra& Burke, 2013). Table 4, Figs. 4 and 5 present key issues in the category of failure of political representation and political systems. 4 According to our analysis, such protests were more prevalent in Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, East Asia and the Pacific, and North America. The main reasons why people protest about a failure of political representation and political systems are: 3.1 Real Democracy This is the largest demand from around the world, present in nearly 28% of all protests counted and the single most prevalent protest issue to emerge from the study, as it is an issue in 779 protests. This kind of protest is understood to be based on the desire for a democratic society that responds to the needs of people, in which people participate directly in the decisions affecting their lives, as counterposed to a formal, representative democracy, that is perceived as often not respecting the“one person, one vote” rule, but instead to have been distorted to serve the interests of the elites and the powerful (Rancière, 2006). A typical example was the call for United States democracy to respond to Main Street instead of Wall Street after the 2008 financial crisis. Protests for real democracy exist in all regions and country-income groups. The regions with a higher prevalence of this category of protest are Europe and Central Asia(e.g., Belarus, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom), Latin America and the Caribbean(e.g., Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, 4 Note that this table includes all instances of a demand or grievance. A protest may have more than one grievance/demand, given that demonstrators often focus on several issues(e.g., they may demonstrate against corruption and lack of transparency, while also calling for real democracy) for this reason the number of demands and grievances is larger than the total number of protests presented in earlier tables counting protest events. Therefore when this study asserts, for example, that corruption is a causal factor in 20% of all protest events, this does not mean that all other causes are to be found in the remaining 80%. 22 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Table 4 Protests against the failure of political representation/political systems by region, 2006–2020 Grievance/demand East Asia & Pacific Europe Central Asia Latin America Caribbean Middle East & N. Africa North America South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa Global Total Real democracy 111 238 108 75 67 14 130 36 779 Corruption 118 161 62 45 60 15 58 39 558 Justice 55 115 57 10 108 3 20 42 410 Sovereignty/patriotic issues 23 95 35 19 21 11 49 11 264 Transparency and accountability 40 41 22 3 47 3 19 69 244 Deep government 11 76 48 11 21 1 32 8 208 /oligarchy Anti-war/military-industrial 19 8 20 21 8 3 18 84 181 complex Citizen surveillance 5 30 14 2 7 0 8 37 103 Anti-socialism/anti-communism 0 7 10 0 6 2 0 0 25 Total 382 771 376 186 345 52 334 326 1503 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/ 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 23 Fig. 4 Map of protests on failure of political representation and political systems, 2006–2020( Source https://worldprotests.org/) Fig. 5 Grievances/demands arising from the failure of political representation/systems by year, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 24 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru), East Asia and the Pacific(e.g., Australia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, South Korea, and Thailand), North America(Canada, Mexico, and the United States), and Sub-Saharan Africa(e.g., the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe). This issue was particularly relevant in the Middle East and North Africa(MENA) region at the time of the Arab Spring(e.g., Egypt and Tunisia) and later(e.g., in Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Morocco). 3.2 Corruption Opposition to corruption is behind 20% of protests globally, with 558 events counted. Protests against corruption are often sparked by prior complaints over poorly delivered public services in health, transportation, education, and security, as exemplified by the massive 2013 anticorruption protests in Brazil, which began as protests against rising bus fares. Similar protests are to be found in many other countries(e.g., also Egypt, Haiti, Iran, Tunisia, Turkey, and Yemen). A large number of protests are led by outraged citizens denouncing private-sector payouts to politicians, tax fraud, manipulation of policies in the interests of the privileged(e.g., Algeria, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, China, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Lebanon, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Romania, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Thailand, United States, and Zimbabwe). Contrary to public perceptions, corruption is not an issue of lower-income countries alone. Corruption is behind 16% of protests in high-income countries, 24% in middle-income countries and 18% in lowincome countries. More on protests against corruption can be found in Section 3 in Chapter 3. 3.3 Justice Justice, or failure to receive justice from the legal system(not conceptual kinds of justice, such as“environmental justice” or“economic justice”), is a cause of 14% of all protests, with 410 protests counted overall. An example can be found in the actions by“hacktivists”(digital activists) affiliated with Anonymous challenging unwilling state authorities to uphold laws against rape, child pornography and police violence or face public 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 25 exposure of the perpetrators’ identities(e.g., in Canada and the United States). Other examples are finance activists asking for reparations for people who lost their savings due to banking crises(e.g., Italy and Spain) and solidarity marches with victims wanting justice from the legal system in case of house evictions, rape and others(e.g., Chad, Mexico, Nigeria, and the United Kingdom). 3.4 Sovereignty and Patriotic Issues Sovereignty and patriotic issues appear in 9%(264) of protests at both extremes of the political spectrum. In recent years, patriotic matters have been elevated by right-wing parties and groups(e.g., in Brazil, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Serbia, the United Kingdom, and the United States); in Germany and Italy, for example, far-right nationalist groups demonstrated against an“open door” policy for Muslim immigrants and refugees. Sovereignty is also an ongoing issue for progressive protestors demanding that big powers stop interfering in national policy-making in developing countries(e.g., Ecuador, Ghana, Philippines, and Vietnam) and in indigenous peoples’ matters(e.g., Brazil, Canada, Peru, and the United States). Finally, sovereignty is a main claim of territories/areas demanding independence(e.g., Catalonia, Hong Kong, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Tibet, and Western Sahara). This is further developed in Section 1 in Chapter 3. 3.5 Transparency and Accountability Transparency and accountability are demands that lie behind nearly 9% of protest events worldwide, in 244 protests. This demand often focuses on policies perceived as not serving the majority of citizens (e.g., Australia, Greece, Iceland, Israel, and Spain). There are also many protests against failed transparency and accountability in developing countries when governments adopt regressive tax policies and public service reforms(e.g., Brazil, Colombia, Kenya, Philippines, and Thailand). This demand also appears in protests about election results perceived as fraud (e.g., Bolivia, Indonesia, South Korea, and the United States). Protests on transparency and accountability are frequently linked to corruption claims. 26 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 3.6 A“Deep Government”/Oligarchy A“deep government” or oligarchy that manipulates policy-making is a cause of more than 7% of all protests(208 protests counted). Claims of an oligarchy secretly dominating the government is common among both left-wing and radical right-wing groups. Examples include progressive protests against the policies of autocratic leaders(e.g., in Belarus, Brazil, Italy, Lebanon, Russia, Turkey, and Uganda) as well as radical right protests against a supposed“deep government” that impedes advancement of the far right agenda(e.g. in Germany, Poland, and the United States). 3.7 Anti-war Protests/Anti Military-Industrial Complex Anti-war protests and those against the military-industrial complex are a factor in more than 6% of protests, with 181 episodes counted overall. Protests by global networks working against war make most of the demonstrations, with most protests focusing on the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan. and Syria. Other protests focused on denouncing military/police abuses(e.g., Democratic Republic of Congo, Mexico, Sudan, and the United States), national military influence on governments(e.g. Bolivia and Brazil), foreign powers’ military intervention(e.g., Mali and Niger), and against United States military bases(e.g.,Ghana and Japan). A number of nationally-coordinated anti-war/military protests also occurred in the South Asia/Pacific region(e.g., Myanmar and Philippines). 3.8 Citizen Surveillance Surveillance of citizens by governments and of workers by corporations is a cause of 3% of all protests, with 103 episodes counted. Many protests—especially since the Manning/Wikileaks 2011 leak of United States diplomatic cables and intensifying with the 2013 case of surveillance whistleblower Edward Snowden—have focused on the actions of the United States. In other countries there have been protests against surveillance by national governments(e.g., Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, Morocco, Netherlands, Philippines, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Vietnam) for spying on citizens and restricting the Internet. Germany, for instance, has experienced giant protests against regulation of social media and the Internet. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 27 3.9 Anti-socialism and Anti-communism This appears in less than 1% of protests(25) in the period 2006–2020. In recent times, anti-socialism and anti-communism have been linked to radical right protests in high-income countries(e.g., Germany and the United States), to opposition movements against Latin American left-leaning governments(e.g., in Bolivia and Ecuador) and to some conservative Muslim protests(e.g., Bangladesh). 4 Grievances/Demands on Economic Justice/Anti-austerity The cluster of issues related broadly to demands for economic justice, including anti-austerity grievances, are the second most common reason why people around the world protest. Overall, 1484 protests in the period 2006–2020, or nearly 53% of total protests counted in the study, reflect people’s outrage at economic and social public policy failures and a perceived lack of broad-based development. Protestors have evinced strong demands for jobs and better living and working conditions, quality public services for all, tax and fiscal justice, equitable land and pension reforms, as well as affordable food, fuel and other goods(Fig. 6). Protests have accelerated because of the contraction of decent jobs as a result of the global crisis and the extension of austerity measures worldwide since 2010, affecting nearly four billion people—half of the world population— in 2017. Recently, the jobs crisis has been accentuated by the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in more protests despite lockdowns. The majority of global protests for economic justice and against austerity have manifested people’s indignation at the gross inequalities between ordinary communities and rich individuals/corporations. The idea of the“1% versus the 99%,” which emerged a decade earlier during the United States protests over the 2008 financial and economic crisis, have quickly spread around the world, feeding earlier grievances against eliteswriting of the rules and manipulating public policies in their favor, while the majority of citizens continue to endure low living standards. 28 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Jobs/Wages/Labor Condi Ɵ ons Reform of Public Services Corporate In fl uence/Deregula Ɵ on/Priva Ɵ za Ɵ on Inequality Tax/Fiscal Jus Ɵ ce Low Living Standards Agrarian/Land Reform Fuel and Energy Prices Pension Reform Housing Food Prices High Income 0 Upper Middle Income 150 Lower Middle Income 300 Low Income 450 600 Global Protests Fig. 6 Protests for economic justice/against austerity by income group, 2006– 2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) Table 5, Figs. 7 and 8 present key issues in the category of protests for economic justice and against austerity cuts. 5 In general, such protests are more prevalent in Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Sub-Saharan Africa, and North America. Contrary to public perceptions, austerity measures are not limited to Europe: since 2010, many of the principal adjustment cuts/reforms have featured most prominently in developing countries(Ortiz& Cummins, 2019) and this is well reflected in our mapping of global protests. The main reasons why people protest about economic justice, including anti-austerity demands, are: 5 Note that this table includes all instances of a demand or grievance. appears in a protest. A protest may have more than one grievance/demand given that demonstrators often focus on several issues(e.g., they may be demonstrating against the reform of public services, denouncing corporate influence, and complaining about low incomes). For this reason the number of demands and grievances is larger than the total number of protests presented in earlier tables counting protests as separate events. Therefore when this study asserts, for example, that reform of public services is a causal factor in 17% of all protest events, this does not mean that all other causes are to be found in the remaining 83%. Table 5 Protests for economic justice/against austerity by country region, 2006–2020 Grievance/demand East Asia & Pacific Europe Central Asia Latin America Caribbean Middle East & N. Africa North America South Asia Jobs/wages/labor 61 120 73 conditions Reform of public services 62 184 76 Corporate influence/ 51 151 93 deregulation/privatization Inequality 31 154 34 Tax/fiscal justice 13 186 30 Low living standards 31 45 82 Agrarian/land reform 29 8 63 Fuel and energy prices 11 26 24 Pension reform 2 39 29 Housing 19 43 5 Food prices 1 10 13 Total 188 662 373 67 43 16 13 62 4 4 54 4 30 32 4 7 28 3 28 6 6 6 17 15 16 23 6 0 17 2 0 16 0 5 6 3 96 199 43 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/ Sub-Saharan Africa 114 54 16 26 30 64 24 28 2 2 31 223 Global Total 23 517 23 478 45 418 36 347 42 339 21 283 19 181 2 136 6 97 0 85 4 73 175 1484 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 29 30 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Fig. 7 Map of protests on economic justice and anti-austerity, 2006–2020 ( Source https://worldprotests.org/) Fig. 8 Grievances/demands on economic justice/against austerity by year, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006– 2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 31 4.1 Jobs, Higher Wages and Labor Conditions This is the most prevalent cause of economic and social-justice-related protests, appearing in 517 protest events in all regions, or in 18.4% of the total number of protests in the world, and reflecting the major jobs crisis that occurred before, during, and after the world financial and economic crisis of 2008, as well as the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. Protests demanding decent jobs occur virtually in all countries. Many national protests also have a specific focus on wages and better working conditions, as exemplified by the protests in Angola, Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Chile, China, Egypt, Germany, Greece, India, Ireland, Jordan, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Philippines, Portugal, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sudan, Thailand, Tunisia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. 4.2 Reform of Public Services Reform of public services is a causal factor in 17% of all protest events counted—a total of 478 protests refer to reforms of education, health, water, and public transport, among others. Citizens marched against full and partial privatization, rationalization of services, budget cuts, costrecovery measures, and other reforms that were perceived as reducing the quality and quantity of public services. Protests existed before the 2008 global financial crisis(e.g., in Australia, Chile, Egypt, Malaysia, and South Africa) but spiraled after 2010 with the adoption of austerity measures not only in Europe(e.g. France, Greece, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) but in a majority of developing countries(e.g., Argentina Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Indonesia, Iran, Mexico, Peru, Philippines, Portugal, Russia, Sudan, Thailand and Turkey). 4.3 Corporate Influence/Deregulation/Privatization Corporate influence, deregulation, and privatization are issues present in 15% of protests worldwide(418 events) in the period 2006–2020. Protestors opposed policies that put the private interests of corporations and financial and other elites ahead of the rest of the population. In some developing countries, decades-long pressure from IFIs like the IMF and 32 I. ORTIZ ET AL. the World Bank has resulted in deregulation and privatization in countries that are not able to deliver adequate services for their own people. For example, privatization was a key grievance in protests in Chile in the decade 2010–2020, as well as in Brazil, France, Greece, and Iceland. Protests against the privatization of electricity drew thousands into the streets in Australia in 2008 and in Kyrgyzstan in 2010. In 2013 in Delhi, India, 100,000 farmers and activists protested against land acquisition for private profit. In recent years, protestors have demanded the regulation of platform services(e.g., UBER, food delivery, etc.) in many countries, such as Colombia, Spain and the United States. 4.4 Inequality More than 12% of the world’s protests(347 protests) denounced inequalities in income, wealth and influence on policy-making and questioned democratic systems that were allowing rent-seeking by elites and corporations. The Occupy movement powerfully mobilized citizens with slogans such as“we are the 99%” and middle classes around the world demonstrated actively against government policy decisions that benefit the elites instead of the majority. In the Arab Spring, as well as in the more recent Latin American Spring, inequality ranked high amongst the grievances of demonstrators. People protested against inequality in countries like Algeria, Angola, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Chile, China, Egypt, Germany, Greece, India, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Myanmar, Philippines, Portugal, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sudan, Thailand, Tunisia, the United Kingdom and the United States. More on inequality and protests can be found in Section 2 in Chapter 3. 4.5 Tax/Fiscal Justice Tax/Fiscal justice claims are also found in 12% of events worldwide, specifically in 339 protests. Protests’ typical issues were focused on inadequate national taxation as well as a lack of international tax cooperation, both of which allow for limited wealth taxation and tax evasion that benefits the wealthy instead of the majority of citizens. Protests demanded: more income and wealth taxation(e.g., Argentina, Brazil, Kenya); that governments fight tax evasion and illicit financial flows(e.g. Czech Republic, Germany, Philippines, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 33 United States); lower taxes/VAT on basic products that people consume (e.g., Iran, Portugal, and Uganda); that governments stop transfers to the financial and corporate sectors(e.g., Indonesia, Malaysia, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States); improvement in inter-regional transfers(e.g. Greece, Italy, and Mexico); and adequate taxation of extractive resources(e.g. Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tanzania). The strength of the citizens’ movements calling for governments to audit sovereign debts(e.g., Brazil, Ireland, Philippines, and Spain) and to repudiate nationalized private-sector debts must also be noted. 4.6 Low Living Standards The issue of low living standards is raised in 10% of world protests(286 protests), and this is often linked to: protests against inequalities(e.g., Philippines, Tunisia, and the United States); demands for decent wages (e.g., Bangladesh, China, Indonesia, and the Philippines); demonstrations against austerity cuts(e.g., Bulgaria, Israel, Spain, United Kingdom); and protests against the rising prices of goods and services(e.g., Brazil, Burkina Faso, Haiti, India, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Occupied Palestinian Territory, and Romania). Low living standards are a grievance behind nearly all protests for social protection reforms, pension reforms(e.g., Egypt and Nicaragua) and the protests to demand higher social benefits during the COVID-19 pandemic(e.g., Bulgaria, Chile, Lebanon, South Africa, and Spain). 4.7 Agrarian/Land Reform Grievances/demands regarding agrarian or land reforms appear in 181 protest episodes(more than 6% of the world total) in the period 2006–2020. In most countries, protestors contested changes to land laws and other reforms resulting in the loss of livelihoods to farmers (e.g., Brazil, Colombia, Honduras, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Mozambique, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, and Sudan). Examples include: India, where landless farmers staged a 600-km march for land rights; China, where protesters demanded the end of land-grabbing and the protection of grasslands; and Sudan, where there have been violent police backlashes against protests that denounced land-grabbing—selling public land to foreign investors. In Colombia and Mexico, small farmers are protesting 34 I. ORTIZ ET AL. the withdrawal of agricultural subsidies and/or competition of agricultural imports because of free-trade agreements or conditions set for loans from the IFIs. 4.8 Fuel and Energy Prices The removal or phasing out of fuel and energy subsidies—an element of fiscal austerity—and the resulting unaffordable energy prices have sparked 5% of protests in 136 countries(e.g., Algeria, Cameroon, Chile, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Niger, Peru, Sudan, and Uganda). While the removal of fuel subsidies can have positive environmental externalities when polluters are no longer subsidized, 6 a main problem is the inadequate compensation to the population. Energy and transport prices increase, resulting in higher prices for food and other basic needs of the population, normally living on low incomes in developing countries(Ortiz& Cummins, 2019). Often the IFIs recommend a small safety net targeted to the poorest—but this policy is insufficient, as it leaves the majority of the population worse off. Consider the cases of Nigeria, Kyrgyzstan, and Ecuador. With the majority of Nigeria’s population living on less than 2 dollars per day, cheap petrol is viewed by many as the only tangible benefit they receive from the state, hence the massive protests since 2012 when Minister of Finance Okonjo Iweala removed a fuel subsidy that kept food and transportation costs low. In Kyrgyzstan in 2010, the price of heating rose by 400% and electricity by 170%: subsequent demonstrations ended in violent riots and the resignation of President Bakiyev. In Ecuador in 2019, after large riots, the government flew from the capital and had to stop a loan with the IMF that had proposed the cuts to energy subsidies and other reforms with negative social impacts. 4.9 Pension Reforms Opposition to pension reforms is behind 3.5% of protests globally, with 97 events counted in the period 2006–2020. The reform of social security and pension systems for cost-saving purposes is a main austerity measure 6 See for example Oosterhuis, F. and Umpfenbach, K. 2014.“Energy Subsidies”, in: Oosterhuis and ten Brink(eds.): Paying The Polluter—Environmentally Harmful Subsidies and their Reform. Cheltenham: Edwar Elgar. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 35 (e.g., raising contribution rates, increasing eligibility periods, prolonging the retirement age, and/or lowering benefits). These reforms have increased since 2010 in many European countries due to austerity pressures, resulting in widespread protests(e.g., France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and the United Kingdom). A number of these protests were successful—in Latvia, Portugal and Romania, the national justice courts determined that the austerity adjustments were unlawful and pensioners were given back their earlier pensions. Developing countries have also experienced important protests against pension reforms, as the IFIs have generally proposed reforms more radical in nature, involving the privatization of pension systems despite the lack of evidence that private pension systems work better than public systems(e.g., Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chad, Chile, Colombia, Egypt, Indonesia, Nicaragua, Sri Lanka, and Ukraine); in fact, a majority of countries have reversed pension privatization(ILO, 2017). 4.10 Housing The right to an affordable decent home has been at the center of 85 protests around the world(in 3% of the protests studied), particularly after the housing bubble and the subsequent eviction of families unable to pay mortgages(e.g., Canada, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States). In Germany, protestors complained about rising prices resulting from the gentrification of city centers. Demands for public support for affordable housing have also profiled high in protests in Brazil, Chile, China, Philippines, and South Africa. 4.11 Food Prices Since 2007–2008, as international food prices have spiked to historic highs, with local food prices at near record levels in many countries, foodprices-related protests have represented more than 1% of world protests (73 protests). Food protests have an inverse relation with income levels, as they are virtually absent from high-income countries and frequent in developing countries such as Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, 36 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Egypt, Ethiopia, Haiti, Ivory Coast, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Niger, Peru, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, and Uzbekistan. Many of these food protests have ended in riots and revolts. 5 Grievances/Demands on Civil Rights Civil rights are a central issue in protest movements. Protests asserting peoples’ rights occur in 1360 protests or 48% of all protests in the period 2006–2020, in issues such as ethnic and racial justice, rights to the commons, freedom of assembly and speech, women’s rights, labor rights, lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgendered(LGBT) and sexual rights, immigrants’ rights, personal freedoms, prisoners’ rights, and freedom of religion(Fig. 9). A small number(7% of total protests) have sought to deny rights or to reject the enjoyment of rights by specific groups of people, for example immigrants or racial minorities; this is linked to the rise of the radical right, as will be explained later in this study. Note that people’s rights include also economic and social rights included in other Ethnic/Indigenous/Racial Jus Ɵ ce Rights to the commons Freedom of Assembly/Speech/Press Deny Rights/Reject Equal Rights for a Group Women's/Girls' Rights Labor Rights LGBT/Sexual Rights Immigrant Rights Personal Freedoms Prisoners' Rights Religious Rights High Income 0 Upper Middle Income 100 200 Lower Middle Income 300 Low Income 400 500 Global Protests Fig. 9 Protest for civil rights by country income group, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https:// worldprotests.org/) 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 37 sections(e.g., the right to education, the right to health, the rights to social security, the right to housing etc.). Table 6, Figs. 10 and 11 present key issues in this category of protests civil rights. 7 Generally, these protests are more prevalent in Europe and Central Asia, as well as in North America. While the rights agenda appears more developed in higher-income countries, it is also evolving fast in Latin America and the Caribbean, East Asia and the Pacific, and other world regions. The main reasons why people protest about civil rights are: 5.1 Ethnic/Indigenous/Racial Justice The greatest number of protests in the category of rights(396 protests, or 14% of the total) relate to issues of ethnic, indigenous, or racial justice. Perhaps the most widespread protests are against racism and demanding racial justice, like the#BlackLivesMatter movement started in the United States and spread internationally(e.g., Australia, Canada, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Jamaica, Portugal, and the United Kingdom). Protestors also demonstrate for indigenous rights and racial equality(e.g., Canada, China, Colombia, Ethiopia, India, Kosovo, Malaysia, Mauritania, Mexico, Nepal, the United States, and Yemen). Sometimes indigenous peoples stand up against infrastructure projects or extractive industries in their native areas that would destroy their environment(e.g., Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Ecuador, Mexico, Morocco, Peru, and Tanzania). But indigenous peoples do not only demonstrate for specific issues affecting their territories, they also stand up for macropolicies, such as for the legitimate election results in Bolivia, for reforming the justice system in Cameroon, for agrarian/land reform in Colombia, against a loan with the IMF in Ecuador, for federalism in Nepal and, importantly, opposing 7 Note that this table includes all instances in which a demand or grievance appears in a protest. A protest may have more than one grievance/demand given that demonstrators often focus on several issues(e.g., may be demonstrating for women’s rights or LGBT and sexual rights). For this reason the number of demands and grievances is larger than the total number of protests presented in earlier tables counting protests as separate events.. Therefore when this study asserts, for example, that women’s and girls’ rights constitute a causal factor in 7% of all protest events, this does not mean that all other causes are to be found in the remaining 93%. Table 6 Protests for civil rights by region, 2006–2020 Grievance/demand East Asia & Pacific Europe Central Asia Latin America Caribbean Middle East & N. Africa North America South Asia Ethnic/indigenous/racial 26 56 64 justice Right to the commons 4 64 112 Deny rights to groups 14 120 9 Freedom of 47 66 25 assembly/speech/press Women’s/girls’ rights 29 33 19 Labor rights 50 43 20 LGBT/sexual rights 35 19 20 Immigrant rights 22 46 0 Personal freedoms 12 33 8 Prisoners’ rights 8 22 14 Religious rights 5 10 0 Total 212 336 218 38 103 14 9 67 0 7 36 8 22 25 1 58 14 6 7 41 1 13 13 0 1 40 2 0 16 1 19 10 0 28 9 9 157 235 20 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/ Sub-Saharan Africa 53 24 2 11 11 9 2 1 3 2 10 73 Global Total 42 396 19 299 15 211 14 211 37 207 28 199 29 131 9 121 3 76 0 75 0 71 139 1360 38 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 39 Fig. 10 Map of protests on civil rights, 2006–2020( Source https://worldprot ests.org/) Fig. 11 Grievances/demands on civil rights by Year, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https:// worldprotests.org/) 40 I. ORTIZ ET AL. genocide against indigenous populations resulting from the lack of health support during the COVID-19 pandemic such as in Brazil. Sometimes protests are for short/medium-term issues, but more often are part of long-term struggles, such as in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, or in Tibet. 5.2 Right to the Commons Assertion of rights to the commons 8 (digital, land/water, cultural, or atmospheric) is behind 10% of surveyed protests(299 protests)(e.g., Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Mexico, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States). Demonstrations for the commons—from Occupy Wall Street in the United States to the“water wars” in Bolivia and Brazil—are against private management of public goods and generally demand that shared resources be managed at the local level. There are also protests to preserve and access the global commons, which is the driver of 19% of global protests, especially those regarding the Internet and protection of the climate and atmosphere. Examples include the Anonymous (a global hacktivist collective/movement) actions against censorship and anti-citizen surveillance. 5.3 Deny Rights to Groups Linked to the rise of the radical right, a recent development is the increase in demonstrations against the rights of women, minorities and ethnic groups. Our study detected 211 such protests(7.5% of the total number of protests). For instance, anti-immigrant white-supremacist protests in Australia, Canada, Germany, and the United States; against gays or samesex marriage in France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain; or against indigenous peoplesrights in Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, and El Salvador. In Bulgaria and Hungary, people took to the streets against refugees and against the Roma; in Mali, against women’s rights; in Singapore, against immigrants; in Turkey, against Christians. In India,“cow vigilantes” and sympathizers 8 According to Wikipedia(accessed January 2021), the commons are the cultural and natural resources accessible to all members of a society, including natural materials such as air, water, and a habitable earth; these resources are held in common, not owned privately. As part of culture, many consider Internet/digital issues a common. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 41 have been protesting the spread of Muslims and communists. This is further developed in Section 1 in Chapter 3. 5.4 Freedom of Assembly/Speech/Press Freedom of assembly, speech, and the press is a concern in 7.5% of protests(in 211 protests). Key examples are Belarus and China, where the extension of these freedoms has been a main cause of demonstrations. The right to assemble has also been central in countries like Uganda, where demonstrations are not allowed, so people had to“walk to work” and“walk to pray” as a proxy for an explicit demonstration. People have also rallied for the freedom of expression, for instance in France after the Charlie Hebdo attack. Freedom of speech and teaching has also been an important concern in countries such as Hungary, India, Iran, Madagascar, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Turkey, and Zimbabwe. A notable case involving freedom of speech/media has been the arrest of Julian Assange in the United Kingdom. Given the large number of journalists killed when reporting hot issues, there have been demonstrations for freedom of press and against the harassment of reporters in Greece, Guatemala, Italy, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Morocco, Myanmar, and the Philippines. 5.5 Women’s/Girls’ Rights Women’s and girls’ rights were core to 207 protests or 7.4% of the world’s protests. A key protest for women’s rights was the#MeToo movement with multiple rallies and action days around the world, that included large protests against femicide(homicide against women) and rape, from Chad to the United States. In Latin America, the#NiUnaMenos equivalent also rallied against machismo, against patriarchal societies, and against the impunity of violence against women. Prior to#MeToo, there were also large demonstrations for gender equality, such as in Chile, China, India, Iraq, Israel, Mexico, Morocco, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Spain, Tunisia, and at World Social Forums (WSF). The case of FEMEN must be noted: FEMEN is an international women’s movement of topless female activists whose breasts are painted with slogans to attract people’s attention. A number of protests were for and against abortion, a heated topic(e.g., Argentina and Poland). More on protests for women’s/girls’ rights can be found in Section 4 in Chapter 3. 42 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 5.6 Labor Rights Beyond the protests regarding economic justice, protests on specific labor rights were a concern in 7.1% of protests(199 protests). Protests for labor rights had a higher occurrence in the East Asia Pacific region(e.g., China, Indonesia, Philippines, and Vietnam) where economic growth in recent years has not been synonymous with the extension of labor rights or even the right to unionize/to free associate. Labor rights protests are also prevalent in Europe and Central Asia and in North America; other countries have also experienced protests for labor rights(e.g., Colombia, Mexico, and Pakistan). 5.7 LGBT/Sexual Rights Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgendered and sexual rights protests made up 4.7% of the world’s protests in the period 2006–2020. These rallies have been prevalent in most world regions, often to protest the discrimination against and oppression of LGBT people in specific countries, as well as having been a key component of global protests. 5.8 Immigrants’ Rights Demonstrations supporting immigrants’ rights appear in 4.3% of the surveyed episodes, in 121 protests mostly in the countries receiving migrants in Europe, North America, and East Asia. Note that this study does not discriminate between protests regarding internal migrants(e.g., China) or international migrants(e.g., Australia, Europe, and the United States). 5.9 Personal Freedoms Protests on personal freedoms are a new, emerging category, mentioned in 3% of protests(76 events). It has become especially prevalent in rallies against the restrictions imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic, with demonstrators objecting to stay at home orders(lockdowns) or to wearing masks, for example such as in Argentina, Australia, Chile, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. A rise in this type of protest in recent years is linked to the rise of populism and the radical right. In some cases, such as in Bolivia and the United States, demonstrators 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 43 linked alleged fraud in election results with a perceived attack on their personal freedoms. However, in some other countries people protested because of more direct attacks, for instance, when street food vendors in Hong Kong were removed from the street by force, or when people in El Salvador demonstrated against gang violence making their lives unlivable. This is further developed in Section 1 in Chapter 3. 5.10 Prisoners’ Rights Protests and demonstrations regarding prisonersrights and the fair treatment of prisoners represent just over nearly 3% of the world’s protests (75 protests). Inhumane conditions have been denounced by prisoners in countries such as Bolivia and Brazil. These protests are often disturbingly graphic, as prisoners resort to extreme means such as hunger strikes (e.g., Occupied Palestinian Territory) or sewing their own lips(e.g., Kyrgyzstan) in order to attract media attention and to publicize their cause. 5.11 Religious Rights Protests related to religion account for less than 3% of all protests (71 events), but this issue has been a driver of protests in the Middle East/North Africa region, reflecting the demands of the Arab Spring. Multiple groups dedicated to this issue are found in countries with an official religion(e.g., Egypt, Morocco, and Turkey). Religious rights influenced protests that were also held in other countries(e.g., Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, France, India, Indonesia, Israel, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Turkey, and Vietnam). 6 Grievances/Demands for Global Justice Protests for global justice have demanded internationally concerted action on issues such as climate change, globalization, and sustainable development. Demonstrators have denounced the role of powerful countries and international institutions(such as the IFIs and the G20) in setting global norms and policies undemocratically, resulting in detrimental impacts on people and on the planet. Demonstrators have also denounced how the global economic system is unfair and keeps developing countries poor and underdeveloped. Protestors have stood up against globalization and free 44 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Environment/Climate Jus Ɵ ce An Ɵ-Interna Ɵ onal Financial Ins Ɵ tu Ɵ ons An Ɵ-Imperialism An Ɵ-Free Trade Global Commons High Income An Ɵ-G20 0 Upper Middle Income 100 200 300 400 Lower Middle Income Low Income Global Protests Fig. 12 Protest for global justice by country income group, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https:// worldprotests.org/) trade, and against the World Bank, the IMF and other major institutions that are perceived to put corporate interests ahead of developing nations, leading to rampant inequality(Stiglitz, 2017). While most protests tend to focus on domestic issues(Brancati, 2016), protests for global justice often rely on a global network, for example like the Occupy demonstrations held on 15 October 2011 in 950 cities in 82 countries under the title“United for#GlobalChange.” Protestors have proposed new policy agendas for a more fair global order.”A better world is possible” is the motto of the annual WSF, an alternative to the meetings of powerful CEOs and personalities at the annual World Economic Forum in Davos. More than 30% of all the protests considered in the study(897 events) in the period 2006–2020 include the global justice component as one of their main issues(Fig. 12). Table 7 and Figs. 13 and 14 present the key issues in the category of protests on global justice and their occurrence in world regions. 9 This 9 Note that this table includes all instances in which a demand or grievance appears in a protest. A protest may have more than one grievance/demand given that demonstrators often focus on several issues(e.g., they may be demonstrating against the IFIs and also against imperialism). For this reason the number of demands and grievances is larger than the total number of protests presented in earlier tables counting protests as separate events. Therefore when this study asserts, for example, that anti-imperialism is a causal Table 7 Protests for global justice by region, 2006–2020 Grievance/demand East Asia & Pacific Europe Central Asia Latin America Caribbean Middle East & N. Africa North America South Asia Environment/climate 51 97 96 justice Anti-international 2 185 39 financial institutions Anti-imperialism 50 28 20 Anti-free trade 8 26 23 Global commons 2 0 4 Anti-G20 0 21 0 Total 323 532 362 0 55 11 22 11 3 25 8 2 0 6 1 0 18 0 0 6 0 184 334 34 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/ Sub-Saharan Africa 19 12 37 0 0 0 129 Global Total 30 359 45 319 93 263 32 96 47 71 10 37 363 897 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 45 46 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Fig. 13 Map of protests on global justice, 2006–2020( Source https://worldp rotests.org/) Fig. 14 Grievances/demands on global justice by year, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https:// worldprotests.org/) 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 47 category of protests is more prevalent in Europe and Central Asia, North America, East Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, and of course in global protests. The main reasons why people protest about global justice are: 6.1 Environment/Climate Justice Environmental and climate justice, based on the historical responsibilities for climate change and calling for urgent action to redress climate change and protect the environment, is a cause of nearly 13% of all protests, with 359 protests counted overall. Demands for environmental justice come often from indigenous communities and countries in the Global South (e.g., Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, India, Mexico, Myanmar, Nigeria, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania), as well as from people living in Northern countries(e.g., France. Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Poland, Romania, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and at the global level(e.g., United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change or UNFCCC, the WSFs). The WSFs frequently emphasize anti-nuclear protests, natural resource exploitation conflicts and the environmental impacts of infrastructure projects. Key examples are the protests organized by Extinction Rebellion, a decentralized, international and politically nonpartisan movement using nonviolent direct action and civil disobedience to persuade governments to act justly on the global climate and ecological emergency, as well as the School Strike for Climate movement led by youth activists such as Greta Thunberg. 6.2 Anti-international Financial Institutions These are protests against the IMF, the World Bank, the European Central Bank, and other IFIs such as the regional development banks, representing 11.4% of all protests, with 319 events counted. These institutions are not democratic but take decisions behind closed doors that affect the lives of all citizens in a country, for instance, cutting wages, jobs, subsidies, and social benefits, or imposing labor and pension reforms with detrimental impacts on people, often abolishing democratically negotiated laws. As will be explained later in Section 11( Who Do Protesters factor in 9% of all protest events, this does not mean that all other causes are to be found in the remaining 91%. 48 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Oppose?), the large majority of protests are against the IMF, followed by those against the European Central Bank—because of all of the European anti-austerity protests—and the World Bank. Protestors have decried policies and programs by the IFIs at the national level, and at the global level they demand the closure or reform of the IFIs. 6.3 Anti-imperialism Anti-imperialism appears 263 times in the protests analyzed, representing 9.4% of total protests in the period 2006–2020. In this category are included protests that denounce the negative/oppressive influence of hegemonic states over less powerful countries and social groups. Most common are protests against foreign and economic policies of the United States of America(e.g., in Australia, Japan, Mexico, Philippines, South Africa, and also in the United States), protests against the North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) in Eastern Europe(e.g., Ukraine), as well as protests denouncing either Chinese(e.g., in Vietnam) or Israeli(e.g., in the Middle East) foreign policy. 6.4 Anti-free Trade Opposition to free trade agreements is behind 3% of protests globally, with 96 events counted. Free trade deals are feared to undermine democracy and lower food safety, environmental, and labor standards.“People over profits” has been a motto of protests against the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership(TTIP), against the Trans-Pacific Partnership(TPP), and against African countries‘economic partnerships with the European Union. The effects of free trade agreements are at the core of protests involving food issues in Latin America and Asia(e.g., Mexico, Peru, and South Korea), as often local small businesses cannot compete with large international corporations; for example, the protests in India against the authorization given to Walmart and Tesco to conduct business in that country, or the protests by farmers and indigenous communities in Mexico and Peru because of the low prices paid for their corn and potatoes due to imported cheaper agrobusiness crops because of free trade agreements. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 49 6.5 Global Commons Protesting the lack of good governance of the global commons, global public goods that exceed the bounds of national governments and to which all countries and peoples have rights, is an emerging cause of protest, representing 2.5% of all protests, with 71 events counted. Demonstrations related to Internet governance occur at both the national (e.g., Argentina, Germany, and Poland) and global levels, in which movements such as Anonymous, the various national Pirate Parties and organized opposition to the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement have a pivotal role in campaigning for an open Internet as part of the global commons. Protests relating to governance of the climate and biodiversity (e.g., the People’s Summit on Climate Change, the 2009 Klimaforum, held during the UN Conference of the Parties in Copenhagen, and the Cúpula dos Povos in the UN Rio+20 Conference of the various WSFs) are also a significant factor in advocacy for the global commons. 6.6 Anti-G20 Although the G20 was created in 1999 as a forum for finance ministers and central bankers, it was turned into a summit for heads of state with the financial crisis in 2008, when President Bush called the first G20 summit in Washington DC. From then on it has been a target of global protests whenever its meetings take place. There have been 15 Summits since 2008. Anti-G20 protests represent 1.3% of the total protests, with 37 events counted. Demonstrators complain about the lack of transparency and openness, limited disclosure of processes and policy documents, all prepared behind closed doors, to be implemented later by countries with little say when impacts are detrimental to their citizens. 7 Who Protests? 7.1 Main Groups Leading Protests 2006–2020: From NGOs and Trade Unions to Hackers Traditionally, a number of activists have been the main agents for change. These include political parties, workers’ unions, NGOs/CSOs, faith groups, and social service agencies. These“traditional agents” remain key organizers and participants in many campaigns, demonstrations, strikes, occupations, marches, and rallies. They are the most well-prepared and 50 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Table 8 Main groups leading protests 2006–2020 2006–2010 2011–2015 2016–2020 Total Non-governmental organizations/civil 250 457 383 1090 society organizations(NGOs/CSOs) Grassroots 132 331 497 960 Political parties/movements 159 289 388 836 Trade unions 145 259 273 677 Social movements 16 117 414 547 Students/youth 53 144 179 376 Indigenous groups 62 100 109 271 Unorganized workers 62 77 117 256 Religious groups 42 82 104 228 Ethnic/racial groups 9 43 123 175 Women/feminist groups 0 13 90 103 Hackers 11 30 23 64 Government officials 5 24 25 54 Employers organizations 4 4 26 34 Police/military/militia 1 8 23 32 Prisoners 1 3 5 9 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests. org/ organized; for example, trade unions are democratically elected, federated at national and international levels, and are still the main force behind some of the largest protests. Table 8 presents the main groups leading protests in the period 2006–2020. The increase of political parties appears to be a normal result of the growing politicization of protests. However, it must be noted that there has been a significant increase in the role of“grassroots” and social movements in protests over the years, as well as that of students/youth, indigenous/racial groups, unorganized workers, religious groups, women, hackers, prisoners and even policemen/military. 7.2 Greater Grassroots Participation Figure 15 shows the distribution of the main groups leading protests by region. Grassroots groups(in blue) appear in large numbers in Europe and North America, even though these regions also have the best organized(and best financed) NGOs/CSOs, political parties, and trade 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 51 Europe and Central Asia North America La Ɵ n America and the Caribbean East Asia and Paci fi c Sub-Saharan Africa Global Middle East and North Africa South Asia Grassroots Social Movement Indigenous Hackers 0% 25% Poli Ɵ cal Party/Movement Students Ethnic/Racial Group Employers Organiza Ɵ on 50% 75% Non Governmental Organiza Ɵ on(NGO) Unorganized Workers Women/Girls/Feminist Police/Military/Mili Ɵ a Trade Unions Religious Group Government Prisoners 100% Fig. 15 Main groups leading protests by region, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprot ests.org/) unions. The impact of grassroots groups is also large in East Asia and the Pacific, Middle East and North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. The increasing involvement of unorganized citizens, grassroots, middle-class people, young and old persons, and the relative decrease in the role of political parties/movements, is meaningful. Citizens have taken to the streets in the Arab Spring, in Europe(e.g. the Indignados and“yellow vests”) or in Latin America’s Estallido Social(Social Upraising). These citizens do not consider themselves activists and yet they protest because they are disillusioned with official processes, political parties, and the usual political actors associated with them. Recent research shows the increasing participation of the middle classes in protests, both in high-income and developing countries(Chen& Suen, 2017; della Porta, 2017). Mass middle-class involvement in protests indicates a new dynamic: a pre-existing solidarity of the middle classes with elites has been replaced in countries around the world by a lack of trust and awareness that neither the prevailing economic system nor the existing political system 52 I. ORTIZ ET AL. is producing positive outcomes for them. Alongside trade unions, civil society organizations and other activists, grassroots citizens have become organizers and participants in many direct actions(e.g., the occupation of public squares and streets, street“teach-ins,” and the blockades of roads and bridges). The fact that 28% of all the protests covered in the study include the demand for real democracy is due in no small measure to the growing ranks of the middle classes in protests. 8 Number of Demonstrators 8.1 Some of the Largest Protests in History The protests included in this study have involved numbers ranging from a few hundred protestors to millions of demonstrators. Note that crowd estimates in relation to any protest are a controversial matter. Depending on the news source, estimates frequently diverge by tens of thousands, sometimes even by millions. Some protest event analysis relies upon police reports when a key research variable is the number of protesters (Klandermans& Staggenborn, 2002); however it is far beyond the scope of this research to conduct a fuller analysis utilizing police records in the many countries covered. Nevertheless, media sources report crowd estimates in the majority of protests analyzed in this study, 53 of which had one million or more protesters(Table 9). During the period 2006–2020, the world has experienced some of the largest protests in its history; the largest protest recorded is India’s 2020 strike against government labor and agriculture reforms, which is estimated to have involved at least 250 million protestors. Table 9 shows the power of well-organized trade unions, as they have mobilized the majority of these protests. The overwhelming majority of the large protests relate to progressive issues/demands, such as: more and better jobs, wages and pensions; investments in health, education and public services; protection of farmers; action on climate change; racial justice; women and civil rights; against austerity cuts, corruption and inequality. However, a number of protests are led by radical right groups such as: QAnon protests in 2020 in the United States and globally; opposition to Muslims, migrants and refugees in Germany(multiple years); demonstrators in France protesting same-sex marriage in 2012; and the large protests against President Dilma Rousseff, Lula and the Workers Party in Brazil in 2013 and 2015. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 53 Table 9 Largest protests 2006–2020. Crowd estimates—more than 1 million demonstrators(selected protests) Country Start year Protest issue Estimated crowd count India India Global United States Brazil Egypt Egypt Brazil Germany Global Spain 2020 2013 2017 2013 2019 2012 2011 2015 2017 2006 2018 The largest coordinated strike in history: 250 million people protest against the government’s plan to liberalize farming and labor Indian workers strike over rising prices, low wages, poor implementation of labor laws and privatizations Calls to regulate social media, against citizens surveillance Black Lives Matter, multiple years/protests Against President Bolsonaro, education and pension reforms, budget cuts Egyptians protest against President Morsi Arab Spring: Egyptians rebel against President Mubarak Against corruption, against President Dilma Rousseff and Lula Opposition to Muslims, migrants and refugees (multiple protests/years) Protesters worldwide demand an end to the war in Afghanistan Spanish demonstrators protest femicides and rape, support women’s rights,#Meetoo #NiUnaMas 250,000,000 100,000,000 87,000,000 82,000,000 45,000,000 15,000,000 14,000,000 11,000,000 10,000,000 6,000,000 5,900,000 (continued) 54 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Table 9 (continued) Country Start year Protest issue Estimated crowd count Italy Portugal United States France Global Greece Portugal Portugal France Turkey France France France 2013 2013 2017 2015 2018 2008 2012 2010 2006 2013 2010 2012 2009 Italian anti-government protesters demonstrate against the European Union and austerity measures Portuguese workers strike over austerity Me Too movement, women’s rights After deadly attack on newspaper, march against terrorist violence and for freedom of expression Youth activists protest the inaction of government on climate change Greeks strike over budget cuts and austerity Portuguese protest austerity Portuguese workers strike over budget cuts and austerity policies French students and citizens protest new labor law Turks demand civil rights French protestors strike over pension reforms French demonstrators protest legalization of same-sex marriage French workers strike for economic justice against high cost of living, public jobs cuts, anti-austerity, in defense of employment and wages 5,000,000 5,000,000 5,000,000 4,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 2,600,000 2,500,000 2,375,000 2,200,000 2,100,000 (continued) 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 55 Table 9 (continued) Country Start year Protest issue Estimated crowd count Brazil Global Indonesia Italy Spain Global Global Kenya Spain Italy Spain Brazil Brazil United States 2013 2013 2012 2009 2010 Yearly 2011 2013 2017 2007 2012 2011 2005 2006 Protestors call for free transport and an end to Workers Party rule Activists protest Monsanto and genetically modified crops Indonesian workers protest for better conditions and benefits Italians hold“No Berlusconi Day” in protest against Premier Berlusconi Spaniards protest cutbacks and austerity 1st May Labor Day each year People around the world protest economic and social inequality Kenyans demand justice for gang rape victim Catalonians demand independence from Spain Italians demonstrate against same-sex marriage Catalonians demand independence from Spain Brazilians decry corruption, poor public services and lack of investment in education and health Brazil’s Landless Workers Movement demands reforms and social justice Americans demand immigrant rights 2,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 Millions 1,800,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 1,700,000 1,700,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 (continued) 56 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Table 9 (continued) Country Start year Protest issue Estimated crowd count Portugal China 2007 2006 United States, Global Argentina Canada 2020 2012 2018 Chile 2016 Chile 2019 Colombia France Global 2008 2019 2013 Italy Portugal Turkey Yemen 2011 2012 2007 2011 Portuguese workers strike over government policies Hong Kong protests central government interference(multiple years) Q-Anon protests Argentinians protest President Fernández Canadians rally across country to call for bolder action on climate change Eliminate private pensions and demand a public pension system “Estallido social” Social outbreak demand public pensions, public services, new constitution Colombian workers strike for better pay Protestors demonstrate against pension reforms Bolivian president organizes People’s summit to protest imperialism and improve people’s lives Italian women protest against Berlusconi Portuguese unions call strikes against austerity measures Turks demand secularism Yemenis demand democratic rule 1,400,000 1,300,000 1,280,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 Source Media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/ 8.2 Protests and Civic Space Are the increasing number of protests and protestors caused by improved civic conditions and political freedoms, or—to the contrary, do they have a tendency to increase when there is repressed civic space? To answer CIVICUS Rank 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 57 6 SUBYAURERYGEYVMLIIERBSA 5 OCAATMUMZILADVCHMGAIGAOEMNORHABADTPTNGACNHMAHUTAIUINCOGNYRKCNAOLNRGUPSAHINI D 4 MEX SKMJHNSELYOAOGATERHRZRZEUIBNUZPISUMIEACNSAINKNLMBAUMRPRSOLEAILRLCMHIOR KEN 3 BRA BSOKDBCGLMRSORUOHJASOSLAOACUMSMDKFOJRPAOAPLARUSGASFPA ITA 2 DCEBNEZEL ICPEOIRRE 1 CAN PRC UKGRE GER USA 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 Protest per Country Fig. 16 Number of protests and civic space(Legend: CIVICUS Rank is 1: Open freer society; 2: Narrowed; 3: Obstructed; 4: Repressed; 5: Closed( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and CIVICUS 2020b) this, Fig. 16 presents the relationship between the number of protests and civic space. The latter is based on the global citizens’ organization, CIVICUS’s’(2020a and 2020b) rank of countries’ civic space, based on the obligation of states to protect civil society, freedom of association, freedom of peaceful assembly, and freedom of expression, and classifying countries into five categories, from open, free societies to closed societies. While protestors demonstrate in countries in all CIVICUS categories(in open freer societies, narrowed, obstructed, repressed, as well as in closed societies), the trendline shows a tendency towards more protests when civic conditions are freer. As expected, repression works: countries where civic space is repressed or closed have fewer protests. 9 Methods of Protest Protestors used a wide range of methods to protest in the period 2006– 2020. This study has identified 250 methods of protest, presented in Annex B, updating Gene Sharp’s 198 methods of nonviolent action 58 I. ORTIZ ET AL. (Sharp, 1973). Our research finds that marches and protest assemblies (or rallies), blockades, occupations and other kinds of civil disobedience/direct action, as well as Internet activism, are the most common methods of protest in the period 2006–2020, presented in Fig. 17. Marches Protest Assemblies Civil Disobedience/Direct Ac Ɵ on Internet Ac Ɵ vism Blockades Occupa Ɵ ons Formal Statements Vandalism, Loo Ɵ ng Violence Strikes/Walkouts Educa Ɵ onal Ac Ɵ ons Poli Ɵ cal Stunts Legal/Electoral Redress Celebrity Endorsements Pe ƟƟ on Drives Form New Poli Ɵ cal Party/Movement General Assemblies Noisemaking/Caceroladas Hunger Strikes Street Theater/Music Twi Ʃ er storms Boyco Ʃ s Hacking Mutual Aid Whistleblowing/Leaks Lawsuits Religious Procession/Public Prayer Self-In fl icted Violence Merchants' Strikes 25.7% 22.6% 21.6% 20.8% 20.4% 19.3% 15.0% 14.0% 14.0% 10.6% 8.2% 8.0% 6.4% 5.2% 5.1% 4.9% 4.1% 4.0% 3.1% 3.1% 2.5% 2.2% 1.7% 1.6% 1.5% 0.9% 0.5% 0.0% 17.5% 35.0% 61.3% 59.0% 52.5% 70.0% Fig. 17 Methods of protests 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 59 9.1 Marches and Protest Assemblies/Rallies Demonstrations usually take the form of a public gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Together, marches, protest assemblies, and rallies are by far the most common methods of protest encountered in the study. They occurred in 1056 protests, in almost every country covered. 9.2 Blockades, Occupations and Civil Disobedience/Direct Action Blockades are another common method of protest, identified in 21% of protests. Civil disobedience involving the occupation of a public square, street, government building, or factory—a tactic made notorious by the occupations of Tahrir Square in Egypt, Syntagma Square in Greece, Puerta del Sol in Spain, Zuccotti Park in New York and Gezi Park in Istanbul—is the next most common method of protest, present in 20.9% of the protests. Other kinds of civil disobedience and direct action appear in 177 events. These two methods—to occupy and to commit civil disobedience—while against the law in most instances, are nevertheless becoming established as acceptable tactics to the middle classes acting in new social movements in all regions, for instance, women in Saudi Arabia who defy laws against their right to drive cars, or the“Walk to Work” and“Walk to Pray” protests in Uganda, when the government declared gatherings of more than two people to be illegal: these are examples of civil disobedience. 9.3 Strikes and Walkouts Strikes and walkouts have been traditional protest methods used by trade unions to request better working conditions for workers at the company level or—less often—at the national level(general strike). We recorded more than 148 strikes of different types in the period 2006– 2020. Most common are strikes by sectoral groups of workers and trade unions, including those by: Bangladeshi garment workers and by Chinese manufacturing workers demanding better working conditions and wages; miners in Colombia; truckers in the Ivory Coast; oil workers in Kazakhstan and Libya; merchants in Iran; electricity workers in Mexico; jeepney drivers in Philippines; metal workers in Turkey; and health workers in Kenya and South Africa demanding adequate equipment and support to fight COVID-19. For the purposes of analysis, we 60 I. ORTIZ ET AL. have recorded even strikes by police and the military requesting better working conditions in Ecuador and Somalia, as well as global strikes like the ones organized by Amazon workers. National general strikes were organized in countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, France, Greece, India, Portugal, and Spain. Today, strikes are also used by protest groups other than trade unions: there are examples of strikes to press governments to fight corruption and to improve democracy, as in Angola, Burkina Faso, and Nigeria; in Nepal, to end the rule of the king; in Pakistan, to denounce land grabs; in Yemen, to demand secession of the South of the country. People have also: struck for better pensions in Italy and the United States; protested low incomes in Egypt and Indonesia; and against privatization in Chile and Jamaica. Students and teachers also went to strike in many countries against education budget cuts, tuition fees, and curricula changes, for example in Canada, Chad, China, Denmark. Hungary, Japan, and Peru. 9.4 Vandalism/Looting Vandalism and looting were used in about 20% of the protests recorded in this study. This is a method condemned by defenders of nonviolent protests given the large arsenal of peaceful methods available for use in people’s struggles(250 such methods are presented in Annex B). Of the cases recorded in the period 2006–2020, some examples are: radical right protests for a return to monarchy, against LGBT and corruption in Brazil;“we are hungry” protests against the COVID-19 lockdown, lack of jobs and social services in Chile and Senegal; against electoral fraud in Bolivia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Honduras and the United States; against austerity budget cuts imposed by the IMF in Ecuador and Greece; Oromia protests in Ethiopia;“yellow vests” protests in France and Ireland; anti G20 protests in Germany; violence by“cow vigilantes” in India; radical right protests against immigrants in Germany and Israel; and riots on rising fuel/food prices and low living standards in Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Ivory Coast, Mauritania, Mexico, and Zimbabwe. More on violent protests can be found in Section 12. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 61 9.5 Internet Activism and Whistleblowing/Leaks Online activism and digital campaigning have become main protest methods employed by social movements, using electronic communication technologies such as social media, email, and podcasts for message dissemination, organizing, and fundraising. For example, during the Arab Spring in 2011, millions of Egyptians rebelled against President Mubarak; for 18 days, Egyptians were able to broadcast videos and images of their struggle for the whole world to see using Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, challenging the official government narrative issued by state media. Examples abound, for instance Nigeria’s youth began spreading tweets with the hashtag#EndSARS 10 to call for an end to police brutality, weeks later demonstrations took place in major cities and the hashtag #EndSARS had by then become a movement for social justice. The period covered by this study also captures the advent of a new era of civil disobedience/direct action carried out by computer hackers and whistleblowers who“leak” massive amounts of government and corporate data, from the publishing of Wikileaks“Iraq and Afghan War Diaries,” a set of 391,000 classified United States State Department cables and reports made public in October 2010 and linked by Amnesty International to the igniting of protests in Tunisia at the beginning of the Arab Spring. 9.6 Pot-Banging/Noisemaking, Street Music, Educational Events Noisemaking has been a traditional method of protest. In most of the Latin countries, this takes the form of banging pots and casseroles (“ cacerolada”), signifying the protest of ordinary women and men against the powerful. Drums have been used by protestors in several countries, including Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India, Iraq, Israel, Romania, South Korea, Spain, Thailand, and the United States. Street music, theater, and educational events have been utilized in many peaceful protests. Protest songs have been strongly associated with social change movements. For instance, the Chilean anti-rapist song“A rapist in your path” has become a feminist anthem performed by women at mass protests all over the world. 10 Special Anti-Robbery Squad(SARS), a notorious unit of the Nigerian Police. 62 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 9.7 Boycotts and Legal/Paralegal Methods Boycotts are an old method of protest, consisting of abstaining from using, buying, or dealing with a good, person, organization or country. For example, Palestinians have boycotted products made in the settlements, and Arabs have boycotted products from Israel. More than 20 boycotts were recorded in the period 2006–2020. Increasingly, activists and ordinary citizens are pushing groundbreaking legal action to force governments into action. Lawsuits are effective when a case is raised through legal channels, for instance, as it was pursued in the#MeToo movement in which many women went forward to sue male harassers; or by black New Yorkers launching a class-action lawsuit in 2013 to tackle discrimination by the police; or indigenous leaders in Brazil suing President Bolsonaro for crimes against humanity by targeting tribes and the Amazon rainforest; or the M-15(the Spanish Occupy) suing Rodrigo Rato, former head of the IMF and of the Spanish private bank Bankia, recruiting pro bono lawyers and identifying more than 50 plaintiffs— people who lost their savings during the financial crisis because they had been defrauded by Bankia. In the face of the slow politics of climate change, activists and lawyers have also increased climate change litigation to advance progress. Another method is enacting People’s Popular Tribunals, or People’s Courts: while these hold no official power of jurisdiction, they represent an attempt to achieve symbolic justice for crimes against humanity. For example, there was a People’s Tribunal to judge free trade, violence, impunity, and peoples’ rights in Mexico(2011–2014); a People’s Tribunal Hearing took place in Brussels in 2014 to judge austerity measures imposed by the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the IMF, designed to make governments adhere to strict fiscal policies, to restructure labor markets and social policies, resulting in violations of Human Rights and a rollback of democratic achievements. 9.8 Hunger Strikes and Self-Inflicted Violence Hunger strikes were identified in 30 protests in the period 2006–2020. Prisoners in Kyrgyzstan went on hunger strike to denounce demeaning living conditions, demanding mattresses and better food; and prisoners in the Occupied Palestinian Territory struck to end administrative detention. In Hong Kong, people went on hunger strike to protest against 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 63 an extradition law and police violence; in India, demonstrators went on strike to save the Ganges from a hydroelectric project. Though more rarely employed, desperate methods such as self-immolation or protesters sewing their own lips together are also among the methods used, particularly for those in prison(e.g., Bolivia, Kyrgyzstan, and Malaysia). There are also those who do not see any method of protest other than suicide (e.g., Bulgarian protests against Borisov in 2013) or those whose dignity has been destroyed by deprivation and the brutality of the authorities(e.g., in Hungary, India, and Tunisia). Finally, there is Mohamed Bouazizi, a Tunisian street vendor who set himself on fire in 2010 because of the confiscation of his wares and the harassment and humiliation inflicted on him by a municipal officials, which became the catalyst for the Tunisian Revolution and the wider Arab Spring. For the list of 250 available non-violent methods of protest, see Annex B. 10 Who Do Protesters Oppose? Just as key objectives of this research are to find out who is protesting (and how and why), it is also important to identify the main targets, or opponents, of the protests. Figure 18 reflects the main targets of world protests in the period 2006–2020. 10.1 Governments The most frequent target for protesters, by a wide margin, is their own national government—as the legitimate policy-making institution responsible to citizens. Nearly 80% of all protests demand that governments take responsibility for economic, social, and environmental policies so that they benefit all, instead of the few. This is further developed in Section 2 in Chapter 3(“Protests and the Perception that Governments Serve a Few”). 10.2 Political/Economic System The next most frequent target for protesters is the inadequate political and economic system, which comprises 30.5% of all protests, reflecting significant discontent with the working of current democracies. Examples include: Australians protesting against the APEC trade agreement 64 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Government(Na Ɵ onal) Poli Ɵ cal/Economic System Corpora Ɵ ons/Employers Elites Poli Ɵ cal Par Ɵ es/Groups Military/Police European Union(EU) Government(Provincial/Local) Interna Ɵ onal Monetary Fund(IMF) Financial Sector United States European Central Bank(ECB) Social groups Inequality Free Trade Religious Authori Ɵ es China Group of 20(G20) World Bank 30.5% 23.7% 14.8% 14.7% 14.3% 10.5% 10.5% 10.1% 9.2% 6.6% 5.9% 5.4% 3.7% 3.5% 3.5% 2.7% 2.6% 1.5% 0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 79.0% 80.0% 100.0% Fig. 18 Main targets of world protests, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) in 2012: Brazilians protesting corruption during the Rousseff, Temer and Bolsonaro presidencies(2015–2019); Canadian, French and German “yellow vests” protests; Chileans protesting during the Estallido Social in 2018; Congolese protesting corruption in 2012; and Egyptians and Tunisians uprisings during the Arab Spring. 10.3 Corporations/Employers Together, corporations and employers are the third most common adversary of protests, appearing in 23.7% of total protests, relating to:(i) opposition to corporate vested interests influencing policy-making(e.g., Australia, Egypt, Germany, Greece, India, Japan, Kyrgyzstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, Philippines, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States),(ii) labor disputes and requests to employers for better wages and working conditions(e.g., Bangladesh, Chile, China, Colombia, Egypt, Ghana, Indonesia, Ireland, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, South Africa, South Korea, Tanzania, United Arab Emirates, and Vietnam), (iii) confronting private interests in natural resource extraction(e.g., Bolivia, Canada, Colombia, Greece, Madagascar, Myanmar, Romania, and Vietnam),(iv) construction of infrastructure by corporations with negative environmental and social impacts(e.g., Argentina, Brazil, China, 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 65 India, Mexico, Myanmar, Peru, South Africa, and the United States), and (v) local businesses’ inability to compete with large foreign corporations (e.g., Colombia, India, Mexico, Spain, and the United Kingdom). 10.4 Elites Protests against the privilege of elites drive nearly 15% of total protests. For example, the global and United States Occupy movement against the richest 1%; the protest in El Salvador against the elite’s power abuse, including the killing of Father Romero; Germany’s Blockupy and Greek protests against bankers; protests against abusive landowners in India; demonstrations against the Mafia in Italy; protests against the new oil elites in Kazakhstan and Nigeria; protests against the drug cartels in Mexico; protests against feudal landlords in Pakistan; and against corrupt elites in Peru and the Philippines. 10.5 Political Parties About 14.7% of protests target specific political parties or groups(e.g., Canada, Egypt, Italy, Libya, Philippines, Russia, Tunisia, Turkey, and in the United States). More than 4% of protests target local governments. 10.6 Military/Police Taken together, these armed forces are the target of 14.3% of the world’s protests. Protests against police brutality have been increasing over the years in all continents; an example can be found in the recent protests first in the United States and then globally against police brutality and for#BlackLivesMatter. Military intervention is another focus of protests, denouncing military abuses(e.g., Brazil, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Sudan), and military presence(e.g., Mali, Niger, Japan, and the Philippines). 10.7 The European Union and European Central Bank(ECB) The European Union is a target in 10.5% of all protests, mostly against the imposition of measures not decided on democratically by citizens of a country, such as the imposition of austerity cuts and reforms in European countries. Closely linked are protests against the European Central 66 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Bank(5.9% of all protests) for its role in inflicting adjustment policies in the region. Demonstrations focused upon the European Union have also occurred in countries where governments are entering into free-trade agreements with the European Union(e.g., Colombia, Mali, Senegal, South Africa, South Korea, and Vietnam). 10.8 The International Monetary Fund(IMF) and the World Bank The IMF is a target of 10.1% of total protests, which are generally associated with policy conditions with negative social impacts linked to austerity cuts, such as the removal of subsidies, pension and labor reforms, wage bill cuts/caps, the rationalization of safety nets, privatizations, raising VAT rates, and others. By comparison, the World Bank is the target of only 1.5% of worldwide protests. Protests against the IMF at global level include virtually all of the 1st of May Labor Day events and all WSFs—the latter sometimes also at the time of the Annual Meetings of the IMF and World Bank, and of the World Economic Forum; at national level, protests generally occur when the government and the IMF sign a program loan, as this typically contains cuts in social services, for example, in Argentina, Bangladesh, Greece, Haiti, Iceland, Ireland, Jamaica, Jordan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Morocco, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Portugal, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Sudan, and Tunisia. In 2019 in Ecuador, riots against budget cuts and reforms agreed between the Moreno Administration and the IMF lasted for days until the government fled from the capital and postponed the IMF program loan. 10.9 Financial Sector Protests against the financial sector represent more than 9.2% of protests. For example, in countries where pensions were privatized or there are discussions about possible privatization that would benefit the financial sector and insurance companies(e.g., Brazil, Chile, and France). Protests against the financial sector were prevalent during the global financial crisis (e.g., Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States); for example, the Occupy Wall Street occupation of Zuccotti Park in the middle of the financial district in New York. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 67 10.10 The United States of America Protests against the United States represent 6.6% of all protests, and relate to anti-imperialism protests alleging the abuse of economic, political, and military power. These are particularly prevalent at the global level and in Latin America as well as in the Middle East and North Africa. They have often been linked to protests against military intervention or the presence of United States military bases(e.g., Afghanistan, Iraq, Japan, Philippines, and Ukraine). In Asia anti-imperialist protests frequently target China. 11 What Do Protests Achieve? In this study,“achievements” are understood as the set of direct and indirect responses from opponents or by society to a protest episode, responding in some measure to the grievances and demands raised by protestors. In this sense, our research shows that 42% of protests resulted in some kind of demonstrable achievement(Fig. 19). For example, in the period 2006–2020 there were many protests against GMOs and Monsanto. In 2013, one of the biggest global protests had a clear demand: stop GMOs Eventually, the objective of this protest movement Fig. 19 Number of protests and achievements by year, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https:// worldprotests.org/) 68 I. ORTIZ ET AL. was achieved in Mexico, although not in other countries. In this study, that partial success is counted as an achievement, even though it was not fully accomplished. It must also be noted that success is rarely the result of one protest event alone, but rather of what we designate as a protest episode—this is, many years of protests insisting on the same grievance/demand. Looking at the differences in achievement between the regions examined in this study, our analysis shows that in South Asia 61% of protest episodes(protests on the same topic over many years) achieved some demonstrable success, whereas global protest episodes have only had a 21% success rate. The rate of success is 50% for East and Asia and the Pacific, 48% for the Middle East and North Africa, 46% for North America, 45% for Sub-Saharan Africa, 39% for Europe and Central Asia, and 38% for Latin America and the Caribbean. In terms of countryincome groups, it is in the lower-middle income countries where 50% of protest episodes have resulted in some kind of achievement, compared to 43% in upper-middle income countries, 42% in low-income countries, and 40% in high-income countries. Focusing on the demands/grievances, the data shows that all the main areas have a similar rate of achievement. The achievement rate of the category“failure of political representation and political systems” is 42%; achievements include, for example, the adoption of a new constitution (e.g., in Chile, Iceland, and Morocco), changes to laws, the resignation of presidents/ministers(e.g., in Algeria, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Haiti, Iceland, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Mali, Niger, Peru, Romania, South Korea, Sudan, Tunisia, Jordan, Ukraine, Yemen, and Zimbabwe), the exposure of government secrets(e.g., Manning/Wikileaks in the United States), or the holding of a dialogue on politically difficult issues(e.g., in China, Colombia, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, and Poland). Economic justice and anti-austerity protests also have an achievement rate of 42%. Achievements include labor victories(e.g., wage rises in Bangladesh, Chad or the United Arab Emirates in 2007–2008, the banning of UBER in Colombia in 2020); demands related to subsidies (e.g., Bolivia in 2010, Ecuador in 2019, and Nigeria in 2010, all these countries had subsidies reinstated after protests); land reforms(e.g., In Brazil in 2020 and India in 2012); taxes(e.g., Burkina Faso, Cameroon, and Ivory Coast lowered taxes on basic goods after protests in 2008; a 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 69 tax on the Internet was cancelled in Hungary in 2014; a new tax bill was cancelled in Japan in 2018); pension reforms(e.g., attempts to reform pensions without adequate social dialogue were stopped in France in 2010, Nicaragua in 2013, Portugal in 2010, and Russia in 2018); reforms of public services(e.g., protesters in Ireland rebelled against austerityinduced water charges in 2016; in South Africa, students achieved the cancellation of fee increases in 2016); mining(e.g., El Salvador, Indonesia, and Peru); or labor market reforms(e.g., in France in 2006), among many others. There are also many protestor achievements linked to stopping or stalling urban development and infrastructure projects (e.g., after multiple protests, construction was stopped in Bulgaria, Chile, China, Guatemala, India, Mexico, Myanmar, Peru, and Poland; Germany agreed to close all its nuclear power plants by 2022). Civil rights also have an achievement rate of 42%; for example, after years of activism, in 2019 in Iran a law was passed stipulating hard penalties for acid attacks; in Saudi Arabia women were officially allowed to vote in 2015 and to drive in 2018; in Senegal, women could vote in the 2015 elections; in Pakistan in a 2006 law, protestors achieved the removal of zina(fornication crime) and the end of rape victims being prosecuted for adultery; in India education quotas for lower castes were preserved in 2006; in Indonesia freedom of religion was enforced in 2017 after protests against and for the Governor of Jakarta who was accused of committing blasphemy of the Quran; in Mauritania in 2020 the arrest of slave owners was an achievements against modern slavery. The global justice achievement rate is 41%, defined as some success, for example, after years of Africans protesting Economic Partnership Agreements with Europe, in 2020 seven countries(Botswana, Namibia, Cameroun, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Kenya, and Swaziland) have still not ratified the agreements. Numbers may appear pessimistic in terms of the rate of success of protestors. However, these outcomes are not necessarily negative, since many of the protests are engaged with long-term structural issues that may yield results over a long period of time; incremental or short-term achievements may prove to be precursors to more comprehensive change. The analysis of achievements leads us to differentiate between two types of protests. First, there are protests that could be identified as having “concrete” demands. This is the case for protests demanding a rise in wages(Bangladesh 2007), a reinstatement of subsidies(Bolivia 2010), or the halt of the construction of a dam(India 2010). Such demands can be 70 I. ORTIZ ET AL. more achievable due to their concreteness and the fact that they usually do not challenge the status quo. A second category includes protests that are designed to achieve structural change, a complete change of power relations, in order to replace them with other systems based on different views of social justice(Izquierdo-Brichs& Etherington, 2017). Success in these types of protests is more complicated to achieve, as it would require a regime change. However, a number of cases can be identified in 2006–2020, such as the Arab Spring in Tunisia and Egypt(2011), Iceland during the 2008 financial crisis, or the October Revolution in Lebanon. Although in such cases the system was not deeply transformed(some interpret changes as“concessions” by the political elites), these events can have a lasting impact that should not be underestimated. This point is illustrated in Fig. 20. The more structural and distant the opponents are, the more difficult they are to fight, as we can see in the case of groups like the G20, the financial sector in a country, the IMF, or the ECB. When it comes to structural issues like free-trade, inequality, imperialism, distant elites, and the military, all protests against Group of 20(G20) Free Trade United States Financial Sector World Bank Inequality Elites Interna Ɵ onal Monetary Fund(IMF) European Union(EU) European Central Bank(ECB) Social groups Military/Police Poli Ɵ cal Par Ɵ es/Groups Government(Na Ɵ onal) Corpora Ɵ ons/Employers Government(Provincial/Local) Religious Authori Ɵ es China 0% 16% 23% 24% 25% 29% 29% 32% 33% 33% 34% 34% 35% 40% 43% 46% 51% 52% 18% 35% 53% 65% 70% Fig. 20 Achievements by targeted opponent, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprot ests.org/) 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 71 them have relatively low achievement rates. Protests against governments (both national and local), religious authorities, employers and corporations, have higher rates of success. Interestingly, a majority of protests against the Chinese government, normally on concrete issues, have a greater chance of achieving some result(65%), than those against the United States, which have only a 23% chance of success. In terms of the methods of protest, the most successful—although not the most frequent—are merchant’s strikes, with a 75% achievement rate (e.g., Iran’s merchants achieving a reduction in the gold tax) followed by whistleblowing and leaks(71%), hacking(64%), and boycotts(63%). On the other hand, the less successful methods are general assemblies (23%), street theater(30%), noise making/pot banging(31%), educational actions(34%) and Twitter storms(36%). Vandalism/looting and violence only show a 43% success rate; note that self-inflicted violence is in a separate category, with a 50% success rate. Regarding which groups of protesters have more success with their demands, those with the highest achievement rates unsurprisingly are employersorganizations(80% achievement rate), followed by the military/police(50%). The least successful are women(33%), then ethnic/racial groups(31%) and finally prisoners(25%). It is also important to highlight that several of the achievements identified in the research relate to changes in public debates. This is an intangible success that however can have a significant impact in reframing debates and bringing issues into the global political agenda. This type of achievement should not be overlooked. Three examples illustrate this. The first one is Occupy Wall Street(2011), in which citizens protested against Wall Street bailouts, denounced inequality and the privileges of the financial sector in shaping the political agenda. The famous motto“We are the 99%” became a slogan heard in many parts of the world, pushing the inequality agenda to center stage. The second one is the UK Uncut (2011) movement, which also emerged during the 2008 financial crisis, denouncing austerity cuts and unfair tax practices of multinational corporations. This movement gave a push to the tax justice agenda. Lastly the #MeToo and#NiUnaMenos movements linked to women’s rights have set the agenda on gender justice and have encouraged girls and women all over the world to stand up for their rights. 72 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 12 Violence, Repression, and Surveillance This chapter will address the issue of violence, both by protestors and against protestors. These two are highly asymmetrical. As presented, the levels of repression of protestors in terms of injuries and deaths are completely unjustified. Protests and other diverse forms of public participation are an essential part of democratic societies. A State’s prerogative to use force with a view to maintaining law and order is guided under the norms established in international law. Universal and regional Human Rights agreements protect the right to protest, recognizing the rights to freedom of assembly, freedom of expression and opinion, and freedom of association, including trade union rights(United Nations, 2012, 2013; INCLO, 2013). 12.1 Limited but Increasing Protestors’ Violence We first examine violence by protestors. Despite the large movements committed to non-violent protest, violence has occurred. 11 Figure 21 shows protests with violence by the crowd, vandalism, and looting. On average, about 20% of protests included some crowd violence, vandalism, or looting. The trend shows a minor but steady increase in violent protests. The spike in 2008 is caused by the large number of so-called“food riots.” Most food- and fuel-price protests were directly related to the removal of subsidies and the implementation of regressive taxes, often advised by the IMF and other IFIs. Many of these subsistence protests— which have spiked to historic levels since 2008—were labelled“riots” in the press coverage. Beginning in January 2007,“tortilla riots” were reported in Mexico, as farmers protested price rises upon implementation of the final stages of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). In the ensuing months commodity prices continued to climb, setting off miners’ strikes and food price protests in Peru(Schneider, 2008: 41–47). In July, as commodity prices reached a worldwide peak, 11 Note that protests taking place in countries experiencing armed conflict with external forces, civil war, or both(e.g., Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria) make counting protests by our research method impractical, in part because international news reports do not cover civil protests, and archives containing local sources in conflict zones are particularly difficult to access. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 73 food riots were reported in India(in August), Morocco and Uzbekistan(in September), China, Mauritania, and Senegal(in November). By the end of 2008, more riots and violent protests to demand affordable food had been reported in at least 22 countries. In the run-up to the 2020–2011 Arab Spring, food protests were the dominant way to demand government accountability, especially in commodity-dependent developing countries. Food“riots” were not as violent as portrayed, and the violence often came not from protesters but from the police crackdown. Reports with rabid headlines then appeared, and governments took note of them, frequently implementing modest rollbacks and other concessions in the ensuing weeks or months. A good example is when Al Jazeera reported in September 2007“Morocco rolls back bread price hike: violent protests force government to withdraw 30 per cent hike in bread prices.” The headline failed to accurately characterize the protest, which had been organized by the Moroccan Association for Human Rights as a peaceful sit-in. Nevertheless, the specter of violence gave the government the necessary cover to retract an unpopular policy. Violence by crowds has also occurred in large“omnibus” demonstrations protesting hardship and many compounded issues, untenable systems, and lack of change(e.g., Bosnia Herzegovina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Germany, Greece, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Montenegro, Nepal, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Spain, Sudan, Syria, and the global protests against the G20), also when there is popular anger on a specific issue(e.g., the Dominican Republic’s suspension of elections, the killing of an ethnic singer in Ethiopia, election irregularities in Mali, the killing of 43 students in Mexico, and Israel’s intifada). It must be noted that far right or radical right protests tend to be more violent(e.g., in Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, India, Indonesia, Poland, Serbia, the United Kingdom, and the United States). Vandalism/looting usually involves violence against property and/or symbolic places, for example, when French farmers vandalized the office of Macron’s party lawmaker protesting the European Union-Canada trade deal, or when they dumped several tons of manure and rotten vegetables in protest at falling food prices. Vandalism/looting has been an increasing method of protest, reported in countries such as Bangladesh, Bolivia, Bosnia Herzegovina, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Chile, China, Congo, Ecuador, 74 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 27.0% 26.1% 24.0% 21.0% 18.0% 15.0% 18.8% 17.8% 22.0% 20.7% 20.3% 21.9% 21.0% 18.5% 18.8% 17.0% 16.1% 16.9% 15.6% 18.1% 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Fig. 21 Riots and violent protests, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) Ethiopia, Germany, Greece, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Iran, Ireland, Israel, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Mexico, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Senegal, Serbia, South Africa, Spain, Thailand, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. 12.2 Increasing Repression and Surveillance of Protestors: Arrests, Injuries, and Deaths Repression of some kind—resulting in arrests, surveillance, injuries and deaths due to state-organized violence—is documented in 62% of the protests analyzed in this study. This is a soft figure, as reliable data on repression can be difficult to secure from news sources alone, and—as with the determination of protest size—it is beyond the scope of this research to conduct a special analysis of repression based on an examination of police reports and other such materials. However, an examination of repression as documented in journalistic sources suggests that more research needs to be done on what appears to be a wide disparity between the Global North and South in terms of the repression of protest by authorities and the coverage of protests in the news media. Many protests in countries of the Global South have a secondary presence in the international news media, often even when the number of protesters killed, injured, or arrested is very large and is therefore only reflected in local and alternative media sources. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 75 Table 10 presents the evolution of reported repression of protestors since 2006. With the number of protests increasing, in the period 2006– 2020 there was a rapid increase of protestors’ repression, visualized in Fig. 22. The most common methods of repression are arrests, police violence, injuries, and deaths. Arrests occur in 45% of protests in 2006– 2020 and close to half of all protests in more recent years(2016–2020). Police violence appears in about 27% of protests. While injuries and deaths have been decreasing slightly, they are very high, recorded in 19 and 17% of all protests respectively. It must be noted that arrests are directly linked to repression, but a number of the injuries and deaths may be a result of widespread violent clashes between opposing protest groups rather than between protesters and the authorities. Other reported methods of repression in the period 2006–2020 include teargas, retaliatory laws, harassment, lawsuits, missing people, displaced people, gunshots, torture, Internet restrictions, expulsion, and deportation. Our research has also documented rising concern with some modes of repression which do not involve the use of physical violence. Table 10 Reported repression of protests, 2006–2020 2006–2010(%) 2011–2015(%) 2016–2020(%) Overall (%) Arrests 41.1 45.1 47.7 45.4 Violence(Police) 27.8 26.5 27.3 27.1 Injuries 23.8 18.5 18.6 19.6 Deaths 18.9 17.9 17.0 17.7 Violence(crowd) 3.5 5.7 10.4 7.2 Teargas 3.3 4.5 10.2 6.6 Retaliatory laws 4.2 5.4 7.1 5.8 Harassment 4.7 3.5 5.5 4.6 Lawsuits 1.9 3.1 4.5 3.4 Missing people 4.9 2.4 1.9 2.7 Displaced people 2.8 2.2 2.5 2.5 Gunshots 1.4 1.6 2.1 1.7 Torture 1.4 0.7 1.7 1.3 Internet restrictions 0.0 0.5 1.6 0.9 Expulsion 0.0 0.1 1.6 0.7 Deportation 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.6 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests. org/ 76 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 450 Arrests Violence(Crowd) 400 Lawsuits Torture 350 Violence(Police) Teargas Missing People Internet Restrictions Injuries Retaliatory Laws Displaced People Expulsion Deaths Harassment Gunshots Deportation 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Fig. 22 Reported repression of protests, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) These new forms of control are enabled by new laws and arrangements between governments, private companies, and national security agencies, and are reported in a number of countries such as Australia, Canada, China, India, Iran, Malaysia, Russia, Singapore, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Vietnam. According to media reports, the protests that generated the most arrests in the period 2006–2020 were—in order of largest number of people affected—in Hong Kong, Egypt, France, Iran, the United Kingdom, Russia, Sudan, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, the United States, Canada, and Cameroon, with 10,000–1000 arrests per protest(Table 11). The protests that resulted in the largest numbers of reported injuries were in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, followed by Egypt, Chile, Thailand, Ecuador, Lebanon, Algeria, Hungary, and Indonesia. In terms of deaths, the worst outcomes were Kyrgyzstan, Egypt, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Kenya and Iran; these countries reported thousands of casualties among protestors. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 77 Table 11 Protests with high numbers of reported arrests, injuries and deaths 2006–2020 Country Year Protest grievance/demand Estimated No. Reported arrests Hong Kong Egypt France Iran United Kingdom Russia Russia Sudan Chile Malaysia Mexico United States of America Canada Cameroon United Kingdom Reported injured 2019–2020 2020 2018–2020 2009–2010 2011 2011 2019 2011–2019 2011 2011 2017 2006 2010 2008 2018–2020 Protesting extradition law and subsequent police violence Protest demanding resignation of President Al Sisi and release of political prisoners Yellow vests anti-system movement Iran election protests London++ riots after a man was killed by the police in the context of recession and austerity Electoral fraud, against President Putin Rejection of independent candidate in the Moscow Duma election Sudanese protest leading to ousting of president Omal Al Bashir Student movement against proposed education reforms Against the privatization of water management Mexicans against hike in energy prices 1st May Labor Day demonstrations demanding better jobs, justice for immigrants Anti G20 demonstrations Food and fuel price riots, low living standards Extinction Rebellion 10,000 4300 4000 4000 3200 3000 3000 2000 2000 1700 1400 1200 1118 1000 1000 (continued) 78 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Table 11 (continued) Country Year Occupied Territory of Palestine Egypt 2018–2019 2011 Chile 2019–2020 Thailand 2010 Ecuador Lebanon 2019–2020 2019–2020 Algeria Hungary 2010–2011 2006 Indonesia Reported deaths Kyrgyzstan 2019 2010 Protest grievance/demand The Israeli blockade of Gaza Estimated No. 9000 End of the 31-year-old state of emergency, departure of president Mubarak, lack of democracy “Estallido social” social outbreak demand public social services, public pensions, new constitution Prime Minister Abhisit to stand down as he did not come to power legitimately, call for elections Against austerity cuts, reforms agreed with the IMF, and President Moreno October Revolution against corruption, lack of jobs, and calling for more public services Democracy, state of emergency state, high food and oil prices Protests in Hungary demanding the Prime Minister’s resignation after he was recorded admitting lies about the economic situation during the electoral campaign Presidential challenger Subianto claimed cheating on elections and refused to accept defeat 6460 5400 2000 1500 1200 826 800 600 Against President Bakiyev’s government corruption, high heating costs and living expenses, ethnic violence 2600 (continued) 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 79 Table 11 (continued) Country Year Protest grievance/demand Estimated No. Egypt Occupied Territory of Palestine Kenya Iran Egypt Ethiopia Sudan 2013 2013–2014 2007–2008 2019–2020 2011 2015–2018 2011–2019 Military coup of July 3, 2013 Protesting Israel’s imperialism and conflict Outrage at election results declaring President Kibabi winner, other grievances Sparked by Increase in fuel prices, then expanded to include corruption and regime change reinforced in January 2020 by the shooting down of a Ukrainian airliner by Iran End of the 31-year-old state of emergency, departure of President Mubarak, lack of democracy Human rights abuses, distribution of wealth, political marginalization Sudanese protest leading to ousting of president Omal Al Bashir 2000 2000 1500 1500 840 500 200 Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests. org/ References Brancati, D.(2016). 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Effective measures and best practices to ensure the promotion and protection of human rights in the context of peaceful protests. Human Rights Council Resolution A/HRC/22/28. 2 AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD PROTESTS 2006–2020 81 Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. CHAPTER 3 Selected Key Issues in World Protests Abstract This section of the book“World Protests: A Study of Key Protest Issues in the 21st-Century” analyzes:(i) trends such as the rise of populism and radical right protests;(ii) anti-corruption and women’s protests;(iii) the link between inequality and protests, as well as the link between protests and perceptions that governments serve only the few; (iv) the Arab and the Latin American Springs; and(v) the link between protestors’ policy demands, Human Rights and internationally agreed UN development goals, calling on governments to act on them. Keywords Protests · Populism · Inequality · Women · Corruption · Human rights 1 Rising Populism and Radical Right Protests 1.1 From Left-Wing to Far-Right Populist Protests In the fifteen years covered by this study, we saw an increasing number of protests driven by two different versions of populism, some considered left-wing and others right-wing. Moreover, this rising populism came in two distinct phases characterized by political orientation, the first of which was anti-authoritarian, and the second of which has been supportive of more authoritarian leaders. © The Author(s) 2022 83 I. Ortiz et al., World Protests, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7_3 84 I. ORTIZ ET AL. The first populist wave(2008–2012) was anti-authoritarian and driven by left-wing economic ideas. It was led by groups angry with the corruption of elites and stirred into action by hardships brought on by the commodity price spikes and financial crisis of 2008–2009. The 2010– 2011 revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, the social protests throughout Europe, especially southern Europe, that they inspired, and the Occupy Wall Street and Occupy Hong Kong movements of 2011–2013, are prime examples of this economic populism, which changed the debate about globalization and who gets to determine peoples’ economic destiny (Ortiz et al., 2013). While left-wing protests were reduced somewhat by 2013–2014, their political benefits continued to accrue to left-wing parties, the most notable of which were Syriza in Greece, Podemos in Spain, and Morena in Mexico. New political movements also emerged, such as Our Revolution, led by democratic socialist Bernie Sanders in the United States. The second populist wave(2013–present) was fueled even more than the first wave by the corruption of elites, but also by failed migration policies, especially in northern Europe, and by worsening inequalities. This second wave is marked by both nationalism and the condemnation of political systems, as well as allegations that dark forces in a“deep state”(or a“deep European/foreign powers” in the case of Hungary, Poland, the United Kingdom, and Turkey) conspire to deny economic security to middle classes in the face of globalization. While the anger of these populists may be a rational response to political systems that have failed for years to deliver on their economic needs(Bello, 2019; Bröning, 2016), the most unsettling characteristic of this populist wave is how many protesters demand not only their own rights, but to deny rights and equal status to groups they think threaten their jobs or status, such as immigrants. This emphasis on denying rights reveals that populist uprisings became vulnerable to authoritarian influencers and right-wing propagandists, who have effectively instrumentalized populist energy. Anti-Muslim movements such as PEGIDA(Patriotic Europeans Against the Islamization of the Occident) in Germany, the“Leave”(the European Union) movement in Britain, rampant nationalism against foreign powers in Turkey, the“war on drugs” in the Philippines, or the cow“vigilantes” in India are prime examples of right-wing populist movements which have—in turn—energized the growth of right-wing nationalist political parties like Alternative für Deutschland in Germany, UKIP(Independence Party) in the United 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 85 Fig. 1 Radical right protests: demands/grievances correlated with the denying of rights, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020, see: https://worldprotests.org/) Kingdom, Ak Parti in Turkey, and the BJP( Bharatiya Janata Party) in India. It is instructive to look at the other demands and grievances found in protests alongside demands to deny rights. Figure 1 shows the set of demands most commonly associated with the denial of rights and/or the rejection of equal rights for a group. 1 Chief among them are demands relating to sovereignty, nationalism, and patriotism, which are the most strongly correlated with rights-denial, as well as a cluster relating to personal freedoms, deep government/oligarchy, corruption, and real democracy. Slightly less numerous but still present are demands for jobs and justice. In the first populist wave, when anti-authoritarianism and economic populism was in the ascendant, there were significantly fewer instances of protests to deny rights. Those instances came along most often with sovereignty and patriotic issues. Examples include dueling Serbian and 1 Chapter 2, Fig. 21 lists only the number of times the included demands/grievances are found to contain denial of rights demands; other instances of these demands may be found in protests that do not demand rights-denial. 86 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Croatian nationalists protesting war crimes charges in 2011 and the harassment of Roma people in Hungary by nationalist Jobbik party patriots in 2012. It is striking in the second populist wave that protests to deny rights almost doubled, raising patriotic and nationalist demands in their wake. Cries for personal freedoms(to carry a gun, not to wear a mask, not to be quarantined) went along almost as often as patriotism with demands to deny rights, and conspiratorial beliefs in a“deep state”/“deep foreign powers” as well as grudges against oligarchies and elites were also a strong part of this ethos. Examples can be seen in Erdogan’s Muslim nationalism in Turkey; the calls for order and national conservatism by Bolsonaro in Brazil and Orban in Hungary; the“Revolution of the Pititas” movement in Bolivia against the re-election of President Morales; in the Italian “Orange Vests” movements, whose demands for jobs and affordable fuel have been replaced by protests against pandemic restrictions; and in the QAnon movement that embraces widespread conspiracy theories linked to the January 6, 2021 storming of the United States Capitol. Anti-corruption protests increased sevenfold during the second wave. A key anti-corruption demand linked to demands for a denial of rights, and seen as early as mid-2013, implicates Brazil’s neo-Pentecostal movement, which advanced their religious rights in alliance with the“Bullets, Bible and Beef” caucus in Congress to overturn the democraticallyelected Workers Party government by infiltrating and co-opting Brazil’s burgeoning anti-corruption social movement. 2 Another demand linked to rights denial that rose in importance was the demand for real democracy, which tripled. Examples include white nationalists in Australia 3 and the United States who seek to block social participation by Muslim and non-white immigrants: these white nationalists cited their own democratic rights to have immigration law enforced(Rohac et al., 2018). Also, Canadal’s 2015 anti-terrorism law limiting citizens’ rights to protest and peacefully assemble was championed by some rights-deniers as a“defense of democracy.” Demands for better jobs, wages, and labor conditions in the context of calls to deny rights also rose. Examples include Germany’s 2 Bevins, V. 2018.“The Brazilian Spring that never arrived: How the hopeful protests of June 2013 were co-opted by forces intent on bringing down the left.” The Atlantic, June 20, 2018. 3 See: Australian Associated Press(AAP) 2015.“Five arrested as reclaim Australia and anti-racism protesters face off in Sydney.” The Guardian, July 19, 2015. 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 87 PEGIDA movement, Britain’s“leave”(the European Union) movement, Kyrgyzstan’s anti-Chinese movement and“yellowvests” movements in France, Ireland, and Canada: all claimed immigrant labor would destroy domestic labor markets. 1.2 Weaponizing Protests Now that we have taken note of the various demands and grievances that accompany rights denial, further context is needed to more fully understand what caused the dramatic shift from anti-authoritarian economic populism to generally authoritarian, denial-of-rights based populism. The sort of economic populism that propelled movements like Occupy Wall Street, with its demand to shatter the economic inequality between the 1% and the 99%, went hand in hand with the movement’s call for real democracy. Exuberant optimism and clever messaging spread the battle of the 99% against the 1% around the globe, and“occupies,” where people assembled in streets and squares to debate how to build communities where everyone’s voice could be heard, could be found from New York to Buenos Aires to Hong Kong. The importance of this economic populism was a focus by the 99% on charting its own economic destiny by rooting out corruption, corporate influence, and the privilege of elites. They wanted to achieve“economic justice” with an inclusive vision of striving for the common needs of all the 99%. This is the sort of populism that economic historian Thomas Frank says originated in the United States People’s Party of the 1890s, which coined the term“populism” to describe its cross-racial and crossethnic organizing first principle: building an economy and society that tries to provide for the common needs of all groups(Frank, 2020). However, by mid-2013, although the Occupy movement had changed the public debate regarding inequality, its energy had faded, and financial reform to address inequalities had been stymied by financial lobbyists and other forms of political capture(Cortés Saenz& Itríago, 2018). At the same time, Egypt’s democratically-elected successor to the revolution’s overthrown autocrat had himself been overthrown in a military coup, and Tunisia’s mostly nonviolent revolution was in crisis. Furthermore, the shipwreck of the fishing boat Lampedusa and the subsequent deaths of hundreds of Libyan, Somali, and Sudanese refugees and migrants in the Mediterranean off the Italian coast in mid-2013 set the stage for a rising migration crisis and calls to seal borders. With lingering economic 88 I. ORTIZ ET AL. pain due to rising living costs, poor wages, austerity cuts, and corruption, people around the world increasingly lost trust in elites, experts, globalization, and faceless institutions, a situation that was quickly exploited by authoritarian influencers. There are many examples in history where the fears of lower and middle classes are manipulated by far right movements(Bello, 2019). Hardship makes people susceptible to race-baiting, ethnic or religious slurs, and misogyny. Today, these were the tactics employed as right-wing propaganda became“weaponized” by social media’s algorithm-driven “rabbit holes,” in which people seek out more and more conspiracy theories and extreme information the longer they stay engaged. The result, according to scholars like Tim Wu and Miguel Schor, has been the undermining of advantages that a commitment to free speech once gave democracies over authoritarianism. 4 The cumulative effect is that people around the world are increasingly isolated in narrow“information bubbles,” ensnared by social media business models developed within a United States legal landscape that does not hold Internet platforms responsible for what is published on them. The Internet influencers and autocrats who benefit from the climate of moral hazard caused by the lack of regulation of new media have also weaponized protests themselves, as demonstrated by the storming of the United States Capitol on January 6, 2021. These charismatic leaders are not populists; they are cynical antipopulists who seek to prevail through the peddling of lies(Frank, 2020). They take advantage of the fact that the problems caused by the 2008 financial crisis and the subsequent migration/refugee crisis, which set the stage for the present situation, have not been corrected, and have even been compounded in intensity since the COVID-19 pandemic began. Thus in the period 2006–2020 we have seen protests being used by political factions to reach power, often encouraging violence. Foreign and national groups are increasingly meddling in national politics through the use of misinformation and disinformation. For example, Brannen et al. (2020) document Russian interference in other countries’ internal affairs and elections by fomenting dissent through fake news and internet hate content, often through“troll farms.” Other groups are also fostering animosity and weakening democracies to advance their interests, by weaponizing misinformation in social media, including but not limited 4 Edsall, T.B. 2021.“Have Trump’s lies wrecked free speech?” New York Times, January 6, 2021. 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 89 to radical right groups. For example, in 2020 multiple United States media outlets reported on white supremacist groups weaponizing protests against police brutality, inciting protesters to start violence. 5 According to the 2020 Global Satisfaction with Democracy Report, almost 60% of people worldwide are dissatisfied with democracy; this means 1.4 billion people live in countries where democracy is in crisis or malaise(Foa et al., 2020). Sadly, the fracturing of information norms (“facts”), exemplified by the United States’ Trump presidency, has eroded even further the common ground of agreement necessary for democracies to function. The underlying factors driving people into radical right movements—corruption, precarious employment, constrained social mobility and violated rights—are not improving fast enough to stop populism’s authoritarian drift. To counter radical right populism, societies will need to expose the contradictions of far-right politics, so that people can become aware of them, and they will also need to pursue a radically inclusive form of politics, open but not identitarian, with fair economic policies to reduce inequalities and offer opportunity and better living standards to all citizens. The world will not see a reversal of the trend towards authoritarian nationalist movements unless significant efforts are mounted to fight polarization, inequality, and disinformation. Such efforts would address many of the underlying grievances and yearnings of protesters, which—if ignored—will continue to draw the attention of radical right leaders who seek to divide and conquer. 2 Inequality 2.1 Inequality and Protests Across history, inequality has been considered the ultimate driver of protests. From Marx to Tocqueville, authors have written about inequality, injustice, rebellion, and protests. Today, inequality is staggering, estimated to be the highest in history(United Nations, 2020). As calculated by Oxfam(2020), the world’s richest 1% have more than twice as much wealth as the remaining 6.9 billion people. In the United States, 5 Business Insider, June 2, 2020:“A white supremacist channel on Telegram encouraged followers to incite violence during police brutality protests by‘shooting in a crowd,’ according to internal Department of Home Security memo.” 90 I. ORTIZ ET AL. the three richest people have the same amount of wealth as the bottom 160 million. The middle classes have been shrinking in a majority of highincome countries(OECD, 2019), the result of four decades of neoliberal policies and a decade of austerity cuts(della Porta, 2017; Ortiz& Cummins, 2019). Further, inequalities are increasing with the COVID19 pandemic; while millions of people are being forced into poverty, the richest individuals and corporations returned to their pre-pandemic highs in just nine months(Oxfam, 2021). Looking at the number of protest and inequality Gini coefficients(after tax and benefits), our research corroborates a positive relation between higher levels of inequality and protests in high-income and middle-income countries(Figs. 2 and 3). However, this is not the case in low-income countries(Fig. 4). Analyses of the relationship between inequality and political instability have produced a diverse and contradictory array of findings. While the impact of inequality on conflict is still being debated, this study evidences 60 50 SA CHI 40 UAESIN ARG OMAISR ROSMKPJAOPRAUSSPA ITA 30 FPRIOARLE CAN HUNICE DCEZNE BEL 20 UKGRE GER USA Avg Gini 10 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 Protests Country Fig. 2 Inequality and protests in high-income countries( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 91 70 SAF 60 IVOZAM ANG HONCOL 50 SZRGIMIUA PER INO CBUADMGRRHEACTNAUICBNOL STHETNGAUJSYANUETMDLUSMRAL BMONLOSEENBPOMPATU IRA 40SSYKAEJRYLBORMGRURALBCAPVNMAIKEYA LIB KCORSO 30 KAZ UKR SCLZOE IND KEN NGA MOPRHI RUS 20 BRA MEX PRC Avg Gini 10 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Protests Country Fig. 3 Inequality and protests in middle-income countries, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) 60 HAI 50 40 SYR 30 MOZ UGAMAD DRC CHA SUD YEM ETH MALI NIG Avg Gini 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 Protests Country Fig. 4 Inequality and protests in low-income countries, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) 92 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Avge Gini Change 4.5 4 BUL INO 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 SKO CRO SPA DEN EGY IND MOZ FRA JAP IVHOUN ROM GHZTAAMN AUS CACMEHTAH HMSAROIBINPAMANYKA UAMDEYAREDLCMISBA 50 ITA GER 100 150 Protests/Country USA 200 250 Fig. 5 Protests in countries with increasing inequality, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) a link between inequality and protests in high- and middle-income countries by looking at Gini coefficients(after tax and benefits) and numbers of protests, updating earlier research(Dubrow et al., 2008). 6 To further explore the issue, we look at the relationship between protests and increases in inequality. Many commentators have pointed out that changes in inequality are just as important as levels of inequality–Tocqueville’s argument that people rebel more when they perceive declines in their standards of living. Figures 5 and 6 show the relationship between protests and changes in inequality, measured by Gini coefficients (after tax and benefits). The trend lines show that there are more protests in countries with increasing inequality, and vice versa, fewer protests in countries in which inequality is being reduced. 6 Other studies use other variables, for example, Collier and Hoeffler(2004) look at the relationship between gini coefficients on income inequality/land inequality and civil wars; MacCulloch(2005) examines Gini indices and the“preference for revolt” taken from surveys. 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 93 Avge Gini Change 0 SO0YMRA 20 M40OR 60 -1 BOSUZSEAGIMNNOASGPUMTDALI KEN CAJNLLZOEEGERBP VIE PHI SBEKEROL SJSAIMN NGASAF CAN -2 TUNTUMRAPLORIRE MACUNNKIIRCG -3 BKUARZ MIASUR CHI KYRGUA IRA THA POL -4 -5 ICE HON DR -6 ELS ECU RUS ARG -7 PECROL 80 MEX BRA -8 -9 BOL Protests/Country 100 120 140 UK GRE PRC Fig. 6 Protests in countries with decreasing inequality, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Solt, 2020) 2.2 Protests and the Perception That Governments Serve a Few Protestors target governments because they are the legitimate institutions that should respond to citizens. The extension of representative democracy as a form of government in the second part of the twentieth century meant that, for the first time in history, people around the world could choose the persons and policies in government. One result is that even in the very few countries without a liberal democratic regime, like the People’s Republic of China, nonelected governments have been compelled to respond to the socio-economic needs of citizens. Nevertheless, protestors have been dissatisfied with the results of democratic governments. The Economist Intelligence Unit(EIU) Democracy Index 2020 reveals a disjuncture between still-high levels of public support for democracy across the globe and deep popular disappointment with the functioning of democracy. In their view, there is a stagnation/recession of democracy—particularly in high-income countries— including:(i) an increasing emphasis on elite/expert governance rather than popular participatory democracy;(ii) a growing influence of unelected, unaccountable institutions and expert bodies;(iii) the removal of substantive issues of national importance from the political arena to be decided by politicians, experts, or supranational bodies behind closed 94 I. ORTIZ ET AL. % People that Believes Gov'ts Serve a Few 80% UKR CHNIGA 70% 60% ROMIRPAOL HUN COL RUS KEN THAISRFRA BEL POR SAF 50% PEJRAP ALEGGY IRE 40% PINAOK MOR OMA TUR AARUGS SCPAAN 30% SMKOAL PHINI D DEN SIN SA 20% VIE BRA ITA MEX 10% GRE UK GER PRC 0% 0 50 100 150 Protests/Country USA 200 250 Fig. 7 Protests and the perception that governments serve the few( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 and Alliance of Democracies& Dalia Research, 2020) doors;(iv) a widening gap between political elites and parties on the one hand and national electorates on the other; and(v) a decline in civil liberties, including media freedom and freedom of speech(Economist Intelligence Unit, 2020: 6). This is much in accordance with our analysis, with the rise of protests for real democracy and against decisions taken behind closed doors by unaccountable bodies such as the European Union, the IMF, and the G20, as well as protests against the influence of elites and corporations on politics. The perception that governments are coopted and serve the few(the elites, corporations, unaccountable institutions) instead of serving the majority of citizens is also corroborated by data published by the Alliance of Democracies and Dalia Research(2020) for their Democracy Perception Index. Figure 7 shows a correlation between the percentage of people who believe that governments serve the few, and the number of protests per country. 3 Protesting Against Corruption Corruption is present in 558 protest-episodes(19.9% of all protests analyzed), being the second most important tag overall after”Real Democracy” It has thus been one of the defining issues of the international agenda during the last 15 years, as protests against corruption increased over the period 2006–2020(Fig. 8). 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 95 300 225 150 75 0 2006-2010 2011-2015 2016-2020 Fig. 8 Protests against corruption, 5-year periods, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 see: https://worldprot ests.org/) Fig. 9 Protests against corruption per region, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 see: https://worldprot ests.org/) Protests against corruption are present in all world regions(see Fig. 9), although they are more prevalent in Europe and Central Asia. Many emblematic protests happened in this region, such as: those in Iceland (2010 and 2016); in Italy against the Mafia, Berlusconi, or the protests of 96 I. ORTIZ ET AL. the Sardines movement; or in Kyrgyzstan and Russia. Inside this region, it is in the Eastern European subregion where protests against corruption are more numerous. In Bosnia, Croatia, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania corruption and the issues of democracy and deep government are the core of several protests. The issue of corruption is also a key factor in the East Asian and Pacific region. Here there were important protests against corruption such as the ones in South Korea(2019), China—Macao(2006) and Hong Kong(2005). Corruption is the second most prevalent grievance in protests occurring in middle-income countries—mainly upper-middle-income(318 protests). However, anti-corruption demands are also present in protests in high-income countries. Both the regional analysis and the country-income analysis demonstrate that corruption is linked not only to developing societies—as it could readily be assumed—but also to high-income countries. The muchassumed causality between democracy and economic development 7 is thus challenged by the importance attributed to corruption in countries with a high level of development. 8 Protests analyzed in this study tend to refer to a systemic/structural form of corruption rather than petty crime. This drives the concept towards the idea of political capture, reinforced as high levels of inequality are entrenched in societies and thus power is more and more concentrated in a few hands; this is, the capacity of some elites to influence the political game for their own benefit at the expense of the majority(Cortés Saenz& Itríago, 2018). This grievance has been present in many protests, such as Algeria, Peru, France, and Kyrgyzstan. This perception of the elites(the 1%) rigging the system is also connected to the perception that democracy, or the system, is not serving the 99% of the population. Hence, the importance of“realdemocracy”’ as the main grievance in many of the protests analyzed(Fig. 10). This is reflected in the perception that the elites abuse their influence in the elaboration of public policies, whether 7 See: Friedman, M. with the assistance of Rose D. Friedman. 1962. Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; North, Douglass C. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8 This could lead as well to discussions about how the level of development is measured. See: Costafreda, A., Maruri, E., Cortés Saenz, H. 2020. The triple challenge of the MICs countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Development in Transition opportunities and the Agenda 2030. Oxfam Intermon Policy Brief. 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 97 Fig. 10 Map of protests against corruption and for real democracy, 2006–2020 ( Source https://worldprotests.org/) in the concession of a mine(Bulgaria 2018), rigging elections(Macedonia, 2015), funding universities(Colombia 2019) or enacting energy policies(Nigeria 2012). One of the most paradigmatic examples is the Odebrecht scandal in which a construction company‘captured’ different governments by financing election campaigns and bribing candidates in exchange for public infrastructure contracts. The revelations of the case sparked protests all over Latin America, especially in Peru(2017) and the Dominican Republic(2018). Finally, even though corruption is clearly linked to public civil servants, the role of transnational corporations, IFIs, and the consulting industry are also relevant and have been targeted in many anti-corruption protests. 4 Fighting for Women ’ s Rights Women’s and girls’ rights are an issue that has increased in importance year by year, with a significant spike from 2018 onwards(Fig. 11), and a cumulative total of 207 protest events for the 2006–2020 period as a whole. This topic is of particular relevance in the Middle East and North Africa region, where this grievance is the third most numerous—after‘Real Democracy’ and’‘Jobs/wages’—registering in 58 protest events. There are several examples of protests for women’srights that have become emblematic—with even global repercussions—and that have achieved 98 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 30 23 15 8 0 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Fig. 11 Protests for women rights, 2006–2020( Source Authors’ analysis of world protests in media sources 2006–2020 see: https://worldprotests.org/) their objectives after years of protests. Israel is one example with the protests against gender segregation in mehadrin bus lines; after many protests—and even diplomatic condemnations—a court ruled against it in 2011. In Saudi Arabia we find two important cases. The first one concerns the protests against the driving ban for women, starting in 2006 and lasting until the ban was removed in 2018. The second one pertains to demands for the right to vote, gained in 2015, when women were legally enabled to vote in local elections and be appointed to the Consultative Assembly. Another important trend this research shows is the increasing importance of wome’’srights protests. Women’s movements have become more visible and powerful, which has transformed the International Women’s Day into a massive global event. Global solidarity around women’s and girls’ rights has become an important element of the current context helping to raise the pressure in favor of their rights everywhere. This has been the case in El Salvador with the abortion protests(2020); #NiUnaMas in Chile(2018); or#BringBackOurGirls after the kidnappings of Nigerian girls(2014). All of them became global protests due to the solidarity and connections between social movements, by which local victories are celebrated as a global victory, as happened with the recent passing of an abortion law in Argentina. Finally, three more elements are worthy of mention. Firstly, even though women’s rights protests usually use pacifist and traditional 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 99 methods, the last years of analysis show the use of alternative methods. This is the case in: the recent protests in Mexico(2020) in which aggressive methods were used; the global#MeToo movement(2017) that denounced sexual harassment and used legal action as an essential method; and FEMEN(2008) activists using their bodies as a protest method. Secondly, as was mentioned above, these protests achieve specific victories but they also demonstrate a broader achievement related to their impact on the social agenda. Lastly, this research differentiates for obvious reasons women’srights protests and LGBT/Sexual rights ones. However, if considered as a single category of protest, their overall importance would rise from 207 protest events to 338 in the period 2006–2020. 5 From the Arab Spring to the Latin America Spring: Ignored Economic Demands Lead to Political Dissent On January 4, 2011, Mohamed Bouazizi set himself ablaze in a protest against bad living conditions. That fire took the entire Arab world by surprise. The shock was so strong that some of the regimes with the hardest grip on power fell, notably those of Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt, after they saw mass protests sometimes leading to armed insurrection. However, our study reveals that protests were common prior to the Arab Spring. In 2008 in Tunisia there was a massive strike by the miners of Gafsa. For over 15 years, Rabat in Morocco experienced demonstrations by unemployed youth. In Egypt in 2007 and 2008 massive demonstrations by textile workers took place. Even in the United Arab Emirates, which experienced little to no protest during the Arab Spring itself, we find a large strike by construction workers in 2007 demanding higher wages. By the end of 2019, a slew of demonstrations in Latin America started to be dubbed the“Latin American Spring.” These Latin American protests were not as present in the international media as the Arab Spring had been, in part because of the coronavirus pandemic; however, their impact was significant. In Peru a president was removed, and his replacement stepped down in under a week. In Ecuador and Nicaragua austerity policies were rolled back due to popular pressure. In Chile people demonstrated and voted overwhelmingly in a national plebiscite to establish a 100 I. ORTIZ ET AL. new constitution. Mass movements occurred all over the South America, from Haiti and the Dominican Republic to Brazil and Argentina. As in the Arab Spring, this was not a sudden change. Our research shows that protestors were as active prior to the Springs in both the Middle East and North Africa and in Latin America. Just a year before, in 2018, farmers in Peru were protesting the very low price at which they had to sell their crops. In 2017 Mexicans were protesting hikes in energy prices. People in Chile had been protesting against education reforms, privatization of pensions, and low incomes, among many other issues. Our analysis shows that in the 2010–2014 period protestors primarily demonstrated for economic justice and against anti-austerity cuts. However, when their grievances were ignored, frustration set in due to the lack of jobs, inadequate social protection, poor public services, et cetera, such that protests turned more political. These failures of governments led toa new wave of protests starting in 2016–2017. The trend manifests itself in the Middle East and North Africa and in Latin America but is to be found in every region(see Fig. 12a–g). In the Middle East and North Africa this tendency is even observed twice: there is a first inflection point in 2011 when failure of political representation protests begin to outnumber economic justice protests, then a second one in 2019, during what some observers have called the second Arab Spring. In both these instances protest events related to economic justice were very numerous, right up until protests against political failures exceeded them. We can observe a global tendency for protest movements to push into the political arena when economic demands are left unanswered. The economic tensions that are voiced through protest should be taken seriously by policymakers, as they tend to evolve into a far less manageable and correctible collection of political demands, 9 including demands for the potential downfall of governments, as was clearly seen during both the Arab and Latin American Springs. 9 See Katz(1999). 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 101 Fig. 12 Main grievances per region 2006–2020 102 I. ORTIZ ET AL. 6 Protests, Human Rights and Development Policies: What Governments Can Do This book has analyzed the main protests that occurred between 2006 and 2020. It described who protests and why, and it looked at the numbers of protestors and their repression in terms of arrests, injuries, and deaths. Further the study has elaborated on methods of protests, presenting 250 methods of nonviolent protest. It also looked at the questions: who do protestors oppose, and what do they achieve? Lastly, it has analyzed a series of key topics such as the rise of radical right protests, inequality, anti-corruption and women rights’ protests, and the Arab and Latin American Springs. This section aims to offer some suggestions regarding what governments can do. Section 10 showed that governments are the most frequent target for protesters, by a wide margin—as the legitimate policy-making institution responsible to citizens. The perception that governments are coopted and serve the few(the elites, corporations, unaccountable institutions such as the G20, the IMF or the European Union) instead of serving the majority of citizens, is corroborated by recent polls and research presented earlier. Nearly 80% of all protests demand that governments take responsibility for economic, social, and environmental policies so that they benefit all, instead of the few. Ultimately, the story of protests in the period 2006–2020 is one of frustrated citizens taking to the streets because their claims and demands were not met. As detailed in this book, protests are not random unorganized riots: the majority of protests are planned and their grievances are articulated, pointing to the failures of political and economic systems. The set of policies needed at both national and global levels to address the grievances described in this study cross over into virtually every area of public policy, from jobs, public services, and social protection to good governance, civil rights, fair taxation and resources for national development. Table 1 identifies the main demands that protestors put to policymakers, in the order of their occurrence in world protests. The majority are in full accordance with Human Rights and internationally-agreed United Nations development goals. States have obligations to respect and fulfill all Human Rights, including the right to protest, the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom of expression established in articles 21 and 19 respectively of 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 103 Table 1 Main human rights and development policy demands from world protesters 2006–2020 Demand/grievance Times raised Percent Human rights/developmental policies Real democracy 779 Corruption 558 Jobs/wages/labor conditions 517 Reform of public services 478 Corporate influence/ 418 Deregulation/privatization 27.7 As part of good governance, States and policy-makers must serve the interests of all citizens (instead of the few, the elites); participatory/direct democracy 19.9 The State(the’duty-bearer’ of rights) must be at center of the anti-corruption debate and efforts at all levels, prosecuting corrupt practices and ensuring systems that respond to citizens 18.4 National and global recovery strategies should focus on employment-generating real-economy growth, raising wages, social protection, and living standards to promote socioeconomic development, in accordance with international labor standards 17.0 Stop reforms based on fiscal cost-savings; the State must guarantee the right to food, water, housing, health, education, social security, and all other Human Rights 14.9 As part of good governance, stop rent-seeking practices; promote adequate public services; public institutions must respond to priorities of all citizens instead of prioritizing the private interests of corporations (continued) 104 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Table 1 (continued) Demand/grievance Justice Times raised 410 Ethnic/indigenous/ 396 racial justice Environment/climate Justice 359 Inequality 347 Tax/fiscal justice 339 Percent 14.6 14.1 12.8 12.4 12.1 Human rights/developmental policies States and policymakers to ensure that national judicial systems enforce justice for all, without discrimination States must protect the rights of racial minorities and indigenous peoples Policymakers to effectively redress climate change and support the environment; to solve conflicts related to infrastructure construction with negative social and environmental externalities; to use environmentally friendly forms of energy; to secure adequate taxation/public revenues from natural resource extraction Policymakers must put an end to gross economic inequalities as well as other inequalities(e.g., ethnicity/ race, gender, etc.) as established by Human Rights and other international standards Policy makers to raise fair taxes from wealthy individuals, groups and corporations(e.g., personal and corporate income and wealth taxes, including on the financial sector), fight tax fraud and tax evasion and crack down on tax havens; stop/reverse transfers and bailouts to the financial sector/corporations; stop austerity cuts that negatively affect populations; lower consumption taxes/VAT on products that low-income people consume (continued) 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 105 Table 1 (continued) Demand/grievance Times raised Anti-international financial 319 institutions(IMF, World Bank, regional banks) Rights to the commons 299 Low living standards 283 Sovereignty/patriotic issues 264 Anti-imperialism 263 Transparency and 244 accountability Percent 11.4 10.6 10.1 9.4 9.4 8.7 Human rights/developmental policies The IFIs should not apply conditionalities, particularly those undermining Human Rights and international labor and environmental standards such as those based on the Washington Consensus, minimizing the public sector, promoting liberalization, deregulation, and privatization; current IFIs should be reformed or new institutions be put in place to promote Human Rights, equitable and sustainable development for all Preserve and ensure universal access to the commons(digital, water, cultural, atmospheric) States and policymakers to end poverty and raise living standards, including with better jobs, wages, and social protection benefits in accordance with international standards and Human Rights While collaboration on global matters is necessary, policy-making must focus on serving the interest of their citizens first World/regional powers must stop interference in national policy-making of weaker nations; respect national sovereignty; stop wars and military intervention As part of good governance, States and policy-makers must enforce transparent and accountable processes and institutions that respond to people (continued) 106 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Table 1 (continued) Demand/grievance Times raised Deep government/Oligarchy 211 Freedom of 208 assembly/speech/press Women’s/girls’ rights 207 Labor rights 199 Agrarian/land reform 181 Anti-war/military-industrial 181 complex Fuel and energy prices 136 LGBT/Sexual Rights 131 Percent 7.5 7.4 7.4 7.1 6.4 6.4 4.8 4.7 Human rights/developmental policies As part of good governance, States policy-makers must stop the influence of any vested interest/groups on government and serve the interests of all persons States and policy-makers must ensure the right to assembly, freedom of speech and press Women are half of the world population but do not benefit equally from policies; States and policymakers to promote and enforce gender equality States and policymakers to promote and protect labor rights to allow workers and their families to live in dignity, in accordance with international labor standards States and policymakers to redress inequalities in landownership and land use to allow for decent incomes in rural areas States and policymakers to enforce the right to peace, stop wars and military interventions; reduce arms trade; rent-seeking practices by the military-industrial complex must be forbidden Policymakers to ensure affordable and sustainable energy to populations States to promote and respect lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgendered rights; sexual orientation is a personal choice that must be the sole decision of the person involved without external coercion (continued) Table 1 (continued) Demand/grievance Immigrant rights Citizen surveillance Pension reform Anti-free trade Housing Prisoners’ rights Food prices Global commons Religious rights Anti-G20 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 107 Times raised 121 103 97 96 85 75 73 71 71 37 Percent 4.3 3.7 3.5 3.4 3.0 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 1.3 Human rights/developmental policies States to promote and fulfill immigrants’ rights Governments to stop surveillance/spying on citizens and restricting the Internet States and policymakers to stop pension reforms driven by cost-savings and pressures from private insurance lobbies to privatize; focus instead on improving public systems to sustainably and equitably provide old-age income security in accordance with international standards Policymakers to stop the drive to free trade agreements that hinder national productive capacities and employment States and policymakers to stop evictions and fulfill the right to housing States to promote and respect rights of prisoners States and policymakers to fulfill the right to food Ensure good governance/stewardship of the global commons e.g., internet, climate, biodiversity Religious freedom needs to be guaranteed in its various expressions The G20(or the G8) are non-legitimate and non-democratic organizations that should not set policies that interfere with other nations’ development and Human Rights achievements 108 I. ORTIZ ET AL. the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights(United Nations, 2013). Peaceful protests are a fundamental aspect of a vibrant democracy. Historically, protests have been a means to achieve fundamental rights at the national and international level(Tilly, 1978; United Nations, 2012). Governments need to listen to the messages coming from protesters, whether well-articulated or not, and act on them. The demands from protestors are often well-established development policies, agreed by all countries at the United Nations and in their national development strategies. A real transformation is required beyond calls for“policy shifts” and “building back better,” which are by now standard buzzwords of the world’s governments and intergovernmental organizations. Leaders and policymakers will only invite further unrest if they fail to prioritize and act on protestors’ demands. References Alliance of Democracies& Dalia Research.(2020). Democracy Perception Index 2020. Dalia Research. Available at https://daliaresearch.com/blog/democr acy-perception-index-2020/. Last accessed 24 May 2021. Bello, W.(2019). Counterrevolution: The global rise of the far right. Practical Action Publishing. Brannen, S., Haig, C.,& Schmidt, K.(2020). The age of mass protests: Understanding an escalating global trend. Center for Strategic and International Studies(CISS). Bröning, M.(2016, June 3). The rise of populism in Europe: Can the center hold? Foreign Affairs. Collier, P.,& Hoeffler, A.(2004). Greed and grievance in civil war. Oxford Economic Papers-New Series, 56(4), 563–595. Cortés Saenz, H.,& Itríago, D.(2018). The capture phenomenon: unmasking power. Oxfam Intermon. Available at https://web.oxfamintermon.org/sites/ default/files/documentos/files/ENG_Oxfam_Intermon_Capture_Methodo logy_2018.pdf. Last accessed 24 May 2021. della Porta, D.(Ed.)(2017). Global diffusion of protest: Riding the protest wave in the neoliberal crisis. Amsterdam University Press. Dubrow, J., Slomczynski, K.,& Tomescu-Dubrow, I.(2008). Effects of democracy and inequality on soft political protest in Europe: Exploring the European social survey data. International Journal of Sociology, 38(3), 36–51. Economist Intelligence Unit(EIU).(2020). Democracy Index 2019 A year of democratic setbacks and popular protest. The Economist. 3 SELECTED KEY ISSUES IN WORLD PROTESTS 109 Foa, R.S., Klassen, A., Slade, M., Rand, A.,& Collins, R.(2020). The global satisfaction with democracy report 2020. Centre for the Future of Democracy. Available at https://www.bennettinstitute.cam.ac.uk/media/uploads/ files/DemocracyReport2020_nYqqWi0.pdf. Last accessed 24 May 2021. Frank, T.(2020). The people, no! A brief history of anti-populism. Metropolitan Books, Henry Holt and Company. Katz, M.(1999). Revolutions and revolutionary waves. Macmillan. MacCulloch, R.(2005). Income inequality and the taste for revolution. Journal of Law& Economics, 48(1), 93–123. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD).(2019). Under pressure: The squeezed middle class. Overview and main findings. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Ortiz, I., Burke, S., Berrada, M.,& Cortes-Saenz, H.(2013). World Protests 2006–2013. IPD Columbia University and Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Available at http://policydialogue.org/files/publications/World_Protests_2006-2013Complete_and_Final_4282014.pdf. Last accessed 24 May 2021. Ortiz, I.,& Cummins, M.(2019). A usterity, the new normal: A renewed Washington Consensus 2010–24. New York, Brussels and Washington, DC: Initiative for Policy Dialogue, International Confederation of Trade Unions, Public Services International, EURODAD and Bretton Woods Project. Available at http://policydialogue.org/files/publications/papers/Austeritythe-New-Normal-Ortiz-Cummins-6-Oct-2019.pdf. Last accessed 13 April 2021. Oxfam.(2020). Time to care: Unpaid and underpaid care work and the global inequality crisis. Oxfam International. Available at https://oxfamilibrary.ope nrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/620928/bp-time-to-care-inequa lity-200120-en.pdf. Last accessed 24 May 2021. Oxfam.(2021). The inequality virus: Bringing together a world torn apart by coronavirus through a fair, just and sustainable economy. Oxfam International. Available at https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/han dle/10546/621149/bp-the-inequality-virus-250121-en.pdf. Last accessed 24 May 2021. Rohac, D., Kennedy, L.,& Singh, V.(2018). Drivers of authoritarian populism in the United States: A primer. Center for American Progress. Solt, F.(2020, October). Measuring income inequality across countries and over time: The standardized world income inequality database. Social Science Quarterly, 101(3), 1183–1199. SWIID Version 9.0. Tilly, C.(1978). From mobilization to revolution. Addison-Wesley. United Nations.(2012). Report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. UN Human Rights Council A/HRC/20/27. 110 I. ORTIZ ET AL. United Nations.(2013). Effective measures and best practices to ensure the promotion and protection of human rights in the context of peaceful protests. Human Rights Council Resolution A/HRC/22/28. United Nations.(2020). World social report 2020: Inequality in a rapidly changing world. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. CHAPTER 4 Conclusions Abstract The conclusion of“World Protests: A Study of Key Protest Issues in the 21st-Century” provides a summary of the content of the book: who protests, why and how they protest, as well as achievements and fallbacks. Protests have increased in all world regions, with demands articulated for real democracy, jobs, public services, social protection, civil rights, global justice and against austerity and corruption. The study also identifies 250 methods of protest and discusses selected topics such as inequality, the rise of radical right and women’s protests. The book calls on governments to listen and act on the main demands of protestors. Keywords Protests · Social movements · Democracy · Austerity · Crisis · Civil rights · Social justice · Human rights This book analyzes 2809 protests that occurred between 2006 and 2020 in 101 countries covering over 93% of the world population. It focuses on:(i) major grievances driving world protests,(ii) who was demonstrating,(iii) what protest methods they used,(iv) who did the protestors oppose,(v) what was achieved,(vi) repression in terms of arrests, injuries, and deaths, and(vii) trends such as the rise of women’s and radical right protests, and the Arab and the Latin American Springs. An annex presents 250 methods of non-violent protest. Most of the demands of protestors were in full accordance with Human Rights and internationally © The Author(s) 2022 111 I. Ortiz et al., World Protests, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7_4 112 I. ORTIZ ET AL. agreed UN development goals; the study calls for policy-makers to listen, whether messages are fully articulated or communicated only through frustration and even violence. In recent years the world has been shaken by protests, from the Arab Spring to the“yellow vests,” from the Occupy movement to the social uprising in Chile and Latin America. There have been periods in history when large numbers of people rebelled against the way things were, demanding change, such as in 1848, 1917, and 1968; today we are experiencing another period of rising outrage and discontent, and some of the largest protests in world history. Beginning in 2006, there was a steady rise in overall protests each year up to 2020. As the global financial crisis began to unfold in 2007–2008, we observe a first jump in the number of protests. Demonstrations intensified with the adoption of austerity cuts/reforms worldwide after 2010. Discontent with the workings of governments peaked in 2012–2013, when people were protesting against a lack of real democracy and the low accountability of decision-makers to the people. Since 2016, protests have escalated again—often becoming“omnibus protests”(protesting on multiple issues) against the political and economic system. Polls worldwide reflect dissatisfaction with democracies and lack of trust in governments. Decades of neoliberal policies have generated large inequalities and eroded the incomes and the welfare of both lower and middle classes, fueling feelings of injustice, disappointment with malfunctioning democracies, and frustration with failures of economic and social development. In 2020, the coronavirus pandemic accentuated social unrest. Protests have increased in all world regions. The study found a greater prevalence of protests in middle-income countries(1327 events) and high-income countries(1122 protests) than in low-income countries (121 events). Interestingly, the period 2006–2020 reflects an increasing number of global protests(239 events), organized across regions. These protests were not random, unorganized riots; the majority of world protests were planned, and their demands were articulated. The main grievances and causes of outrage were: • Failure of Political Representation and Political Systems : 1503 protests were related to the lack of real democracy; corruption; failure to receive justice from the legal system; sovereignty and patriotic issues; transparency and accountability; the perceived power of 4 CONCLUSIONS 113 a deep government or oligarchy; anti-war or against the militaryindustrial complex; the surveillance of citizens; and anti-socialism and anti-communism. • Economic Justice and Anti-Austerity : 1484 protests on issues related to jobs, wages and/or labor conditions; the reform of public services; corporate influence, deregulation, and privatization; inequality; tax and fiscal justice; low living standards; agrarian/land reform; high fuel and energy prices; pension reform; housing; and high food prices. • Civil Rights : 1360 protests on ethnic/indigenous/racial rights; right to the commons(digital, land, cultural, atmospheric); freedom of assembly, speech, and press; women’s and girls’ rights; labor rights; LGBT and sexual rights; immigrants’ rights; personal freedoms; prisoners’ rights and religious issues. In this category have been added those radical right protests that sought to deny rights or reject equal rights for a group(e.g., against minorities). • Global Justice : 897 protests were for environmental and climate justice; against the IMF, the World Bank, and the European Union/European Central Bank; against imperialism(United States, China); against free trade; in defense of the global commons; and against the G20. Our analysis of protest movements in 2006–2020 shows that protestors demonstrated for economic justice and anti-austerity reforms primarily during the 2010–2014 period. When grievances remained unacknowledged, frustration grew because of a lack of decent jobs, social protection, public services, agrarian and tax justice, among other concerns. In consequence, protests became more political, sparking a new wave of protests fueled by the failure of democracies, starting in 2016. Protests linked to civil rights also intensified steadily during the period covered. Globaljustice related protests increased in the period, but at a more moderate rate than the other categories. A profile of demonstrators reveals not only traditional protesters(e.g. activists, NGOs/CSOs, trade unions); on the contrary, middle classes, women, students and youth, pensioners, indigenous, ethnic and racial groups, as well as other grassroot citizens were actively protesting in most countries. These citizens do not consider themselves activists and yet they protest because they are disillusioned with official processes, political parties and the other usual political actors associated with them. 114 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Mass middle-class involvement in protests indicates a new dynamic: A pre-existing solidarity of the middle classes with elites has been replaced in many countries by a lack of trust and awareness that the prevailing economic system is not producing positive outcomes for them. Not only has the number of protests been increasing, but so also has the number of protestors. Crowd estimates suggest that at least 52 events had one million or more protesters. The period 2006–2020 has experienced some of the largest protests in world history; the largest recorded was the 2020 strike in India against the government’s plan to liberalize farming and labor, estimated to have involved 250 million protestors. While the overwhelming majority of large protests were related to progressive issues, such as more and better jobs, wages and pensions; investments in health, education and public services; protection of farmers; action on climate change; racial justice; women and civil rights; against austerity cuts, corruption and inequality; a number of protests were led by radical right groups such as the QAnon protests in 2020 in the United States and globally; opposition to Muslims, migrants, and refugees in Germany; or the protests against the Workers Party in Brazil in 2013 and 2015. Protestors used a wide range of methods. This study has identified 250 methods of non-violent protest, presented in Annex B, updating Gene Sharp’s“198 methods of nonviolent action”(Sharp, 1973). Our research found that marches and protest assemblies(or rallies), blockades, strikes and occupations, as well as internet activism, were the most common methods of protest. The period 2006–2020 also captures the advent of a new era of civil disobedience/direct action carried out by computer hackers and whistleblowers who“leaked” massive amounts of government and corporate data, and by lawyers who launched lawsuits/litigation to advance social and environmental progress. Contrary to public perceptions, riots and protests involving violence and vandalism/looting represent only 20% of the total. Though only used by a few, 5% of protests record desperate methods such as hunger strikes and self-inflicted violence (e.g. self-immolation, protesters sewing their own lips). Who do protesters oppose? The most frequent target for protesters, by a wide margin, is their own national government—as the legitimate policy-making institution responsible to citizens. Nearly 80% of all protests demand that governments take responsibility for economic, social, and environmental policies so that they benefit all, instead of the few. Protestors further oppose distant and unaccountable 4 CONCLUSIONS 115 systems/institutions such as the political and economic system(30%), corporations/employers(23%), the European Union/European Central Bank(16%), elites(14%), political parties/groups(14%), military/police (14%), the IMF(10%—and the World Bank 1%), the financial sector(9%), free trade(3%), the G20(nearly 3%), as well as the United States of America(6%) and China’s imperialism(3%). What did protesters achieve? Historically, protests have been a means to achieve fundamental rights at the national and international level. Our research shows that 42% of protests resulted in some kind of demonstrable achievement, generally a partial success. Success is rarely the result of one protest event alone, but the result of many years of protests focusing on the same grievance/demand. These outcomes are not necessarily negative, since many of the protests are engaged with long-term structural issues that may yield results in time; incremental or short-term achievements may prove to be precursors to more comprehensive change. Concrete demands(e.g., a rise in wages, the reinstatement of subsidies, such as for food and fuel, or the halting of infrastructure construction) have more chances of success that protests that aim at structural change. The more structural the issue is(e.g., inequality, free trade, imperialism) and the more distant the opponents(e.g. the G20, the financial sector, the IMF, military alliances), the lower the rates of achievements. Protests targeting governments(both national and local), religious authorities, employers, and local corporations have higher rates of success. Repression is documented in more than 60% of the protest episodes analyzed in the study, taking the form of arrests, injuries and deaths due to state-organized violence. Other reported methods of repression include teargas, surveillance, retaliatory laws, harassment, lawsuits, missing people, displaced people, gunshots, torture, internet restrictions, expulsion, and deportation. According to media reports, the protests that generated the most arrests in the period 2006–2020 were in Hong Kong(China), Egypt, France, Iran, United Kingdom, Russia, Sudan, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, the United States, Canada, and Cameroon, with 10,000 to 1000 arrests per protest. The protests that resulted in the largest numbers of reported injuries were in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, as well as in Egypt, Chile, Thailand, Ecuador, Lebanon, Algeria, Hungary, and Indonesia. In terms of deaths, the worst countries are Kyrgyzstan, Egypt, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Kenya, Iran, Ethiopia, and Sudan. It must be noted that while arrests and surveillance 116 I. ORTIZ ET AL. are directly linked to government-led repression, a number of the injuries and deaths may be the result of violent clashes between different groups. In recent years, there has been a shift from anti-authoritarian left-wing populist protests to generally authoritarian, far right populist protests across the world. Some common traits of radical right protests include the condemnation of political systems with allegations of corruption and insinuations that dark forces in a“deep state” are conspiring to deny economic security to the middle classes. This is the profile that led to the QAnon movement and the assault on the United States Capitol, as well as to“deep European/foreign powers” conspiracies in the case of Hungary, Poland, the United Kingdom and Turkey. While the anger behind these protests may be a rational response to political systems that have failed for years to deliver on people’s economic needs, the most unsettling characteristic of this populist wave is how many protesters demand not only their own rights, but to deny rights and equal status to groups they think threaten their jobs or status, such as immigrants (e.g. Germany’s Patriotic Europeans Against the Islamization of the Occident or PEGIDA; the“leave the European Union” movement in the United Kingdom; and a number of the“yellow vests” protests in France, Ireland, and Canada). Other traits include cries for personal freedoms(to carry a gun, not to wear a mask, not to be quarantined), nationalism, patriotism and the promotion of traditional values Such is the case with the“cow vigilantes” in Modi’s India, Erdogan’s Muslim nationalism in Turkey, and the“Bullets, Bible and Beef” caucus in Brazil’s Congress which aimed to overturn the democratically-elected Workers Party. Many national and foreign groups are also fostering animosity and weakening democracies to advance their interests, by weaponizing misinformation and disinformation in social media. Thus, in the period 2006–2020 we have seen protests being used by political factions to reach power, often encouraging violence. To counter radical right populism, societies will need to expose the contradictions of far-right politics, so that people can see for themselves. Societies also will need to pursue fair economic policies to reduce inequalities and offer opportunity and better living standards to all. The world will not see a reversal of the trend towards authoritarian nationalist movements unless significant efforts are mounted to fight polarization, inequality, and dis/misinformation. 4 CONCLUSIONS 117 Our research corroborates a positive relation between higher levels of inequality and protests in high-income and middle-income countries; however, this is not the case in low-income countries. To further explore the issue, we looked at the relationship between protests and increases/decreases in inequality Gini coefficients(after tax and benefits); showing that there are more protests in countries with increasing inequality, and vice versa, fewer protests in countries in which inequality is being reduced. Data analysis also shows a correlation between the percentage of people who believe that governments serve the few, and the number of protests per country. Another important trend is the increasing importance of women’s and girls’ rights protests both at national and global levels. The global #MeToo movement(2017–) that denounced sexual harassment and unequal pay and opportunities in the workplace;#NiUnaMas in Chile (2018–) and Spanish-speaking countries; or more local protests such as Saudi Arabia’s to allow women to vote and drive(2006–2017) and #BringBackOurGirls after the kidnappings of Nigerian girls(2014), are recent examples of protests fighting for women’s rights. The set of policies needed at the national and global levels to address the grievances described in this book cross over virtually every area of public policy, from jobs, public services, and social protection to good governance, lack of corruption, fair taxation, and civil rights. Governments need to listen to the messages coming from protesters. Most demands are in full accordance with Human Rights and internationally agreed UN development goals. Leaders and policymakers will only invite further unrest if they fail to listen and act on the main demands of protestors. Reference Sharp, G.(1973). The politics of nonviolent action, Vol. 2: The Methods of Nonviolent Action. Porter Sargent Publishers. Summary available at https://www.aeinstein.org/nonviolentaction/198-methods-of-nonviolentaction/. Last accessed 24 May 2021. 118 I. ORTIZ ET AL. Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Annexes Annex A: Methodology The methodology behind the gathering of PEA data on protests around the world in the period 2006–2020 is the result of a collaborative effort that took place in 2013 in New York and then virtually in 2020. The study uses data compiled through the World Protests website(https:// worldprotests.org/), developed by the authors with support from the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) and the Global Social Justice/Initiative for Policy Dialogue. The research compiles data from 16 years of news reports available online in six main languages(Arabic, English, French, German, Portuguese, and Spanish, as well as selected news in Chinese and Hindi), published between January 2006 and December 2020 in 101 countries, as well as data on a number of protests that cross international boundaries. In keeping current with new tendencies around the world, the taxonomy that is in use here has been updated from the one used in the 2006– 2013 working paper(Ortiz et al., 2013). The refinements that were introduced since 2013 have been vastly informed by the comments of participants—including both researchers and social activists—in events organized around the first paper or the accompanying database on the World Protests website. A full list of the taxonomy of each category can be found in this annex. © The Editor(s)(if applicable) and The Author(s) 2022 119 I. Ortiz et al., World Protests, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7 120 ANNEXES Statistical Definitions and Computations The units of analysis used in this study are(1) the“protest movement” or“protest episode,” defined as an event or sequence of events with a common and identifiable grievance or set of demands, and(2) the “protest event,” comprising protest activities lasting no longer than one year. Since some protests on the same issue and led by the same actors are active throughout multiple years, such episodes have been broken down into their component events for the purposes of statistical analysis. So a protest movement lasting between a few days and less than a year will represent one protest event in our count, as contrasted with a protest movement lasting for 10 years, which would be represented by 10 protest events in our calculations. For example, from January 2006(the beginning of the period covered by the book) through 2009, unions in the United States have been organizing consistently against attacks on collective bargaining rights. Rather than counting this four-year-long activity as a single event, we have divided it into four protest events, one for each year(2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, given that there were multiple protest activities by trade unions in each year); otherwise, a four-year protest effort would be equal to a small one-time protest event. Protests were then classified according to a taxonomy of categories, presented below. The way the categories are defined in the following taxonomy is made so that they are not mutually exclusive, e.g., a protest may be classified under more than one subclassification. For instance, protestors may demonstrate on multiple related issues in the same protest event(e.g., they may be demonstrating against the reform of public services, while also denouncing corporate influence and low incomes). In this case, the protest would be classified as having these three grievances/demands. This multiplicity of categories is very common in demonstrations and rallies. Therefore, if one goes through the statistical tables and recounts the percentages, they will frequently find them summing to above 100%. 1 In most cases the percentage is obtained by dividing the category by the number of protest events. The percentage might also be obtained by dividing the category by the total number of 1 This is clearly visible in Chapter 2, Fig. 1, in which each cluster total is less than the sum of the issues that comprise it. The totals in Chapter 2, Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6 also reflect that method of counting. ANNEXES 121 protest events in a subcategory. In order to make the number of categories and subcategories clear, Chapter 2, Fig. 2 shows all the numbers of events for each category of grievance. Taxonomy Each chapter of the book represents an aspect of protest movements. Each protest is classified according to its demands, methods, groups protesting, target groups, and method of repression, according to the specific taxonomy presented below. The categorization of issues is subsequent to the data-gathering process explained earlier. The following categories have been used for statistical and analytical purposes in each section: Main Grievances and Their Subcategories Economic Justice and Austerity With the subcategories: – Jobs, higher wages, labor conditions – Reform of public services (education/ health/ water) – Corporate influence/ Deregulation/ Privatization – Inequality – Tax/Fiscal justice – Low living standards – Agrarian/land reform – Fuel and energy prices – Pension reform – Housing – Food prices Failure of Political Representation With the subcategories: – Real Democracy – Corruption – Justice – Sovereignty/Patriotic Issues – Transparency and accountability – Deep Government/Oligarchy – Anti-war/Military-Industrial Complex – Citizen Surveillance – Anti-socialism/communism 122 ANNEXES Civil Rights With the subcategories:: – Ethnic/indigenous/racial justice – Rights to the commons (digital, land, cultural, atmospheric) – Freedom of assembly/speech/press – Deny rights/reject equal rights for others – Women’s/Girls’ rights – Labor rights – LGBT/sexual rights – Immigrant rights – Personal freedoms – Prisoners’ rights – Religious rights Global Justice With the subcategories: – Environment/Climate Justice – Anti-International Financial Institutions – Anti-Imperialism – Anti-Free Trade – Global Commons – Anti G20 Who Protests We categorize different activists according to their own description when available, and as grassroots if either stated or not found, gathering data from multiple sources to create a realistic account of protests seen in 2006–2020, bearing in mind that there can be more than one category of protesters for the same protest episode: – Non-Governmental Organization(NGO) /Civil Society Organization(CSO) – Grassroots – Political Party/Movement – Trade Unions – Social Movements – Students/Youth – Indigenous group – Ethnic/Racial group – Women/Girls/Feminist – Hackers – Government – Employers organization – Police/Military/Militia – Prisoners Methods of Protest This study has identified 250 methods of protests(Annex B), updating Sharp’s 198 Methods of Non-Violent Action(1973). The analysis focused on the most common methods: ANNEXES 123 – Marches – Protest assemblies – Occupations(including factory takeovers) – Civil disobedience/direct action – Strikes/walkouts – Blockades – Formal statements – Educational actions – Violence – Vandalism/looting – Internet activism – General assemblies – Political stunts – Hunger strikes – Hacking – Whistleblowing/leaks – Noisemaking/Pot-banging – Celebrity endorsements – Form new political party/movement – Legal/electoral redress – Petition drives – Mutual aid – Street theater and music – Boycotts – Lawsuits – Self-inflicted violence – Merchant strikes – Religious processions/public prayer Opponents Opponents are the groups or organizations that the protest or movement is targeting. Movements describe their targets in various ways, from very specific, such as individual corporations in the case of localized strikes, to more general, as, for example, in the case of a protest against the entire government or the whole of the financial sector. Some cases have arisen in which the whole political/economic system is the target of a movement, as is the case of the Arab Spring and the Occupy movements. – Government(National) – Political/economic system – Corporations/employers – Elites – Political Parties/Groups – Military/police – Financial Sector – International Monetary Fund (IMF – Government (Provincial/local) – European Union – United States – European Central Bank (ECB) – Free Trade – Specific Social Groups – Inequality – China – Religious authorities – G20 – World Bank 124 ANNEXES Repression If cited by trusted news sources, repression is documented in the following categories, attention has been given to cases in which violence is reported with no mention of police or government forces, that case is counted separately from specifically-described police violence. – Arrests – Violence(Police) – Injuries – Deaths – Violence(Crowd) – Teargas – Retaliatory laws – Harassment – Lawsuits – Missing People – Displaced people – Gunshots – Torture – Internet Restrictions – Expulsion – Deportation Annex B: 250 Methods of Non-Violent Protests The following is a summary update of the 198 nonviolent methods used in nonviolent struggles from Gene Sharp’s The Politics of Nonviolent Action(1973), adding new methods from recent experiences in this study of World Protests 2006–2020. METHODS OF NONVIOLENT PROTEST AND PERSUASION Formal Statements 1. Public Speeches 2. Letters of opposition or support 3. Declarations by organizations and institutions 4. Signed public statements 5. Declarations of indictment and intention 6. Group or mass petitions Communications with a Wider Audience 7. Slogans, caricatures, and symbols 8. Banners, posters, and displayed communications 9. Leaflets, pamphlets, and books 10. Newspapers and journals 11. Records, radio, and television 12. Skywriting and earthwriting 13. Human banners 14. Write hoax/fake news 15. Mockumentaries(mock documentaries) 16. Coded language to overcome repression ANNEXES 125 Digital and Online Activism 17. Online petitions 18. Email and social media campaigning 19. Social networks 20. Trending hashtags 21. Blogs 22. Mass emails/calls to an official 23. Livestreaming situations 24. Crowdfunding 25. Hacktivism/disrupting websites 26. Trolling(e.g., trading stocks, hashtag flooding) 27. Database leaks 28. Virtual sit-ins 29. Clicktivism 30. Maptivism(maps for activism e.g. climate change) 31. Influencing Internet search engines 32. Faux mocking websites, videos 33. Sousveillance(covert surveillance by citizens) Group Representations 34. Deputations 35. Mock awards 36. Group lobbying 37. Picketing 38. Mock elections 39. Absurd candidates/parties Symbolic Public Acts 40. Occupations(buildings, squares…) 41. Displays of flags and symbolic colors 42. Wearing of symbols 43. Prayer and worship 44. Delivering symbolic objects 45. Partial or total nudity(e.g., FEMEN) 46. Flash mobs 47. Destruction of own property 48. Symbolic lights/candles 49. Displays of portraits 50. Paint and graffiti 51. New signs and names 52. Pot-banging /Caceroladas 53. Drumming 54. Car horns 55. Symbolic sounds 56. Symbolic reclamations 57. Rude gestures 58. Growing or shaving hair as protest 59. Express dissent/kneel during national anthem Pressures on Individuals 60.“Haunting” officials 61. Taunting officials 62. Fraternization 63. Mailing symbolic items 64. Vigils Drama and Music 65. Humorous skits and pranks 66. Performances of plays and music 67. Singing Processions 68. Marches 69. Parades 126 ANNEXES 70. Religious processions 71. Pilgrimages 72. Motorcades/Car caravans 73. Disguised marches(e.g. walk-to-work, walk-to-pray) Honoring the Dead 74. Political mourning 75. Mock funerals 76. Demonstrative funerals 77. Homage at burial places Public Assemblies 78. Assemblies of protest or support 79. Protest meetings 80. Camouflaged meetings of protest 81. Teach-ins 82. Human chains 83. Coordinated worldwide demonstrations Withdrawal and Renunciation 84. Walkouts 85. Silence 86. Renouncing honors 87. Turning one’s back METHODS OF SOCIAL NONCOOPERATION Ostracism of Persons 88. Social boycott 89. Selective social boycott 90. Lysistratic nonaction/Sex strike 91. Excommunication 92. Interdict Noncooperation with Social Events, Customs, and Institutions 93. Suspension of social and sports activities 94. Boycott of social affairs 95. Student strike 96. Social disobedience 97. Withdrawal from social institutions Withdrawal from the Social System 98. Stay-at-home 99. Total personal noncooperation 100.“Flight” of workers 101. Retreat to sanctuary 102. Collective disappearance 103. Protest emigration( hijrat) METHODS Of ECONOMIC NONCOOPERATION: ECONOMIC BOYCOTTS Actions by Consumers 104. Consumers’ boycott 105. Nonconsumption of boycotted goods 106. Policy of austerity 107. Rent withholding 108. Refusal to rent 109. National consumers’ boycott 110. International consumers’ boycott Action by Workers and Producers 111. Workmen’s boycott 112. Producers’ boycott Action by Middlemen ANNEXES 127 113. Suppliers’ and handlers’ boycott Action by Owners and Management 114. Traders’ boycott 115. Refusal to let or sell property 116. Lockout 117. Refusal of industrial assistance 118. Merchants’“general strike” 119. Action by Holders of Financial Resources 120. Withdrawal of bank deposits/transfer to savings cooperatives 121. Refusal to pay fees, dues, and assessments 122. Refusal to pay debts or interest 123. Severance of funds and credit 124. Revenue refusal 125. Refusal of a government’s money Action by Governments 126. Domestic embargo 127. Blacklisting of traders 128. International sellers’ embargo 129. International buyers’ embargo 130. International trade embargo/economic sanctions METHODS OF ECONOMIC NONCOOPERATION: THE STRIKE Traditional Strikes 131. Protest strike 132. Walkout 133. Refusal to fulfill the obligations of a job 134. Picket lines 135. Lockout 136. Sector strike 137. National/General strike 138. Sympathetic strike(in solidarity) 139. Reverse strike(overwork) Agricultural Strikes 140. Peasant strike 141. Farm Workers’ strike 142. Disrupting traffic with tractors 143. Tipping produce/manure onto public spaces Strikes by Special Groups 144. Refusal to work in prison 145. Prisoners’ disobedience 146. Wheelchair caravan 147. Inflatable items to obstruct and impede traffic 148. Professional strike 149. Corporate whistleblowing Restricted Strikes 150. Detailed strike(a carefully planned strike with work stoppages over a period) 151. Bumper strike(unions strike one firm at a time) 152. Slowdown strike/Working-to-rule strike (low productivity by meticulously following all rules) 153. Reporting“sick”(sick-in) 128 ANNEXES 154. Strike by resignation( En masse resignation) 155. Limited strike(workers refuse certain amounts of work) 156. Selective strike Combination of Strikes and Economic Closures 157. Hartal(suspended economic activity for a set amount of time) 158. Economic shutdown METHODS OF POLITICAL NONCOOPERATION Rejection of Authority 159. Withholding or withdrawal of allegiance 160. Refusal of public support 161. Literature and speeches advocating resistance 162. Citizens’ Noncooperation with Government 163. Boycott of legislative bodies 164. Boycott of elections 165. Boycott of government employment and positions 166. Boycott of government depts., agencies, and other bodies 167. Public filibusters 168. Withdrawal from government educational institutions 169. Boycott of government-supported organizations 170. Refusal of assistance to enforcement agents 171. Removal of own signs and placemarks 172. Refusal to accept appointed officials 173. Refusal to dissolve existing institutions 174. Mock government documents/forms Citizens’ Alternatives to Obedience 175. Reluctant and slow compliance 176. Disobedience 177. Disguised disobedience 178. Refusal of an assemblage or meeting to disperse 179. Sitdown 180. Conscientious objection(e.g. military service) 181. Noncooperation with conscription and deportation 182. Hiding, escape, and false identities 183. Civil disobedience of “illegitimate” laws 184. Samizdat(distributing censored materials) Action by Government Personnel 185. Selective refusal of assistance by government aides 186. Blocking of lines of command and information 187. Filibuster delaying tactics 188. Stalling and obstruction 189. General administrative noncooperation 190. Judicial noncooperation ANNEXES 129 191. Deliberate inefficiency and selective noncooperation by enforcement agents 192. Whistleblowing/leaks 193. Mutiny Domestic Governmental Action 194. Quasi-legal evasions and delays 195. Noncooperation by constituent governmental units International Governmental Action 196. Changes in diplomatic and other representations 197. Delay and cancellation of diplomatic events 198. Withholding of diplomatic recognition 199. Severance of diplomatic relations 200. Withdrawal from international organizations 201. Refusal of membership in international bodies 202. Expulsion from international organizations METHODS OF NONVIOLENT INTERVENTION Personal Intervention 203. Self-exposure to the elements 204. The fast a. Fast of moral pressure b. Hunger strike c. Satyagrahic fast(Gandhi) 205. Chaining oneself to buildings 206. Taking the hit, not responding to violence by police or others 207. Sewing own lips 208. Self-immolation(protest suicide) Occupation Interventions 209. Sit-in 210. Stand-in 211. Wade-in 212. Mill-in 213. Pray-in 214. Nonviolent raids 215. Nonviolent invasion 216. Nonviolent interjection 217. Nonviolent obstruction 218. Tunnel digging/stay-in 219. Peace camps(e.g. outside military bases) Social Intervention 220. Establishing new social patterns 221. Overloading of facilities 222. Stall-in 223. Speak-in 224. Guerrilla theater 225. Alternative social institutions 226. Alternative communication system 227. NIMBY(not in my backyard – neighbors opposing land developments) Legal and Para-legal Intervention 228. Official lawsuits 130 ANNEXES 229. Litigation(e.g. climate change litigation) 230. Judicial activism 231. Consumer courts 232. Enacting People’s Popular Tribunals or People’s Courts 233. Mock/reverse trials Economic Intervention 234. Nonviolent land seizure 235. Defiance of blockades 236. Politically motivated counterfeiting(e.g. use fake money to mock corruption) 237. Preclusive purchasing 238. Seizure of assets 239. Dumping 240. Selective patronage 241. Alternative markets 242. Alternative transportation systems 243. Alternative economic institutions Political Intervention 244. Overloading of administrative systems 245. Disclosing identities of people serving elites 246. Seeking imprisonment 247. Civil disobedience of “neutral” laws 248. Work-on without collaboration 249. Dual sovereignty and parallel government 250. Self-imposed transparency Country Argentina Argentina Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil China China China El Salvador Germany Global Global Global Global Global Global India Italy Italy Japan Kenya Kenya ANNEXES 131 Annex C: Main World Protest 2006–2020 Start year Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 News headline Argentines protest mine contamination Argentines protest construction of paper mill on Argentina-Uruguay border Protesters in Brazil demand halt to dam construction Brazil’s Landless Workers Movement demands reforms and justice Brazilians protest government response to ongoing drought Workers in Brazil protest conditions Citizens of Hong Kong protest Beijing’s influence and demand full democracy Chinese residents protest land-grabs Protesters in Hong Kong mark anniversary of Tiananmen Square massacre Salvadorans protest mining Germans protest nuclear power and nuclear waste Residents across Asia protest building of dams Muslims around the world protest publication of cartoons depicting Mohammed Protesters worldwide demand an end to the war in Afghanistan Protesters worldwide oppose war in Iraq Africans protest Economic Partnership Agreements with Europe Protesters boycott Israeli products Indian farmers protest steel project Italians protest high-speed rail plan Italians protest mafia Japanese protest U.S. military presence in Okinawa Kenyan medical workers strike over better pay and resources Kenyan teachers strike over pay (continued) 132 ANNEXES (continued) Country Mexico Morocco Nigeria Nigeria Pakistan Philippines Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Africa South Korea United States of America United States of America United States of America United States of America Vietnam Western Sahara Zambia Zimbabwe Belarus Bolivia Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Start year Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 Pre 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 News headline Mexicans protest construction of La Parota dam Moroccans protest continued unemployment Secessionist organizations in Biafra agitate for independence Nigerian militant group demands greater share of oil Pakistanis protest rape law Filipinos protest American military presence Russians protest Putin, Kremlin Saudi women protest driving ban South Africans protest incorporation of province South Africans demand public services South Koreans protest land seizure for United States bases American unions demand decent jobs and economic justice Americans protest hurricane Katrina response MTA workers of New York strike to defend their labor union contracts Anti-war militants including former vets demand and end to Iraq and Afghanistan wars Vietnamese demand workers’ rights Western Saharans demand independence Zambian miners demand decent wages and treatment Zimbabweans call for Mugabe resignation Lukashenko’s third term met with protest and claims of rigged election Bolivian miners protest nationalization, tax hikes Bolivian prisoners stage hunger strike over unfair conditions Bosnia protests awards to Dutch peacekeepers who watched and did nothing at infamous 1995 massacre of thousands at Srebrenica (continued) (continued) Country Canada China China Dominican Republic Egypt France Global Global Global Global Global Hungary India India Iran Lebanon Malaysia Mexico Mexico Nepal Niger South Africa South Korea Turkey Ukraine ANNEXES 133 Start year 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 News headline Six Nations members protest over land claims in Canada Macanese workers in China protest corruption and inequality Anti-Japanese protesters demand Chinese authority over Diaoyu island chain Dominicans protest corruption Egyptian judges demand independence French students protest new labor law Workers protest on May Day 2006 Protesters call for action on Darfur Protesters denounce Israeli attack on Lebanon NGOs/CSOs and activists protest 2006 World Bank-IMF meeting Pirate Parties fight for rights across Europe Hungarians call for PM’s resignation Doctors and medical students protest proposed quota system Indian Dalits protest ill-treatment Iranian women collect signatures to eliminate gender discrimination The opposition movement of Lebanon demand and obtain a national unity government Malaysian“Berish” campaign demands electoral reform Mexican farmers and unionists protest price increases Mexican teachers strike over school quality and pay Nepalese protest rule of king Nigerien students demand scholarship disbursements Durbanese protest a new polluting industry in their city South Koreans protest free trade deal Turks demand cancellation of Papal visit Ukrainians protest NATO action in Crimea (continued) 134 ANNEXES (continued) Country United Kingdom United States of America Algeria Argentina Australia Bangladesh Bangladesh Bolivia Canada Chad China Egypt Egypt Global Global Global Global Greece Greece India Israel Italy Japan Kenya Kenya Kosovo Start year 2006 2006 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 News headline Brits demand climate change action Americans rally for rights of immigrants Algerians protest Islamic extremists Argentinians demand justice for Carlos Fuentealba Australians protest APEC Students in Bangladesh protest ongoing state of emergency Bangladesh textile workers demand minimum wage hike Bolivians protest new constitution Diverse activist groups organize across borders to stop Keystone XL pipeline project Chadian workers strike over wages Chinese protest location of paraxylene plants Egyptians protest lack of water Egyptian textile workers strike over wages Anti-Islam protesters in Europe call for Immigrant Rights restrictions Workers protest on May Day 2007 Activists protest the World Economic Forum at 2007 WSF NGOs/CSOs and activists protest 2007 World Bank-IMF meeting Greek journalists protest austerity cuts Students clash with authorities on funding and policing of campuses Indian adivasi and dalit march for land rights Israelis petition for desegregated bus lines Italians demonstrate against same-sex marriage Japanese support workers at U.S. bases strike over pay cuts Kenyans protest food and fuel prices Kenyans dispute election results Vetevendosje protests UN plan for Kosovo (continued) (continued) Country Malaysia Mauritania Mexico Mexico Morocco Myanmar Myanmar Nicaragua Pakistan Poland Poland Portugal Portugal Senegal Slovenia South Africa Turkey Ukraine United Arab Emirates(Dubai) United Kingdom United States of America Uzbekistan Yemen Argentina Australia Bangladesh Brazil Brazil ANNEXES 135 Start year 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 News headline Malaysian Hindus protest discrimination Mauritanians riot over food prices Indigenous Mexican Communities protest wind farms Mexican street vendors protest policies Moroccans protest food prices Burmese protest dam project Burmese protest authoritarian government, removal of fuel subsidies Nicaraguan pensioners demand payment Pakistani lawyers protest dismissal of judges Poles march against abortion Poles march for gay rights Portuguese workers strike over government policies Portuguese workers demonstrate against economic policies Senegalese protest food prices Slovenian journalists petition against proposed law South African settlement residents protest eviction order Turks demand secularism Ukranians demand new elections Emiratis demand higher wages In 10 years , tax justice has climbed the global agenda Americans protest corporate malfeasance Uzbeks protest food prices Yemenis demand central governance Farmers protest export tax increase NSW electric workers protest privatization Bangladeshi workers demand wages meet rising food prices Brazilian activists protest paper mill The tender of Brazilian oil to foreign companies has Unions protesting (continued) 136 ANNEXES (continued) Country Burkina Faso Cameroon China China Colombia Egypt Ethiopia Ghana Global Global Global Global Global Greece Greece Guatemala Haiti Iceland Iceland India Indonesia Iran Ireland Italy Ivory Coast Kenya Start year 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 News headline Food riots in Burkina Faso Citizens riot in Cameroon over high prices Tibetans protest Chinese rule Residents protest metal plants in China Colombian workers strike for better pay Egyptian workers strike over high prices, low wages Ethiopians riot over food shortage Liberian refugees in Ghana protest repatriation plan Workers protest on May Day 2008 Truckers strike across Eurasia over fuel prices Southern African transport workers block unloading of weapons headed for Zimbabwe FEMEN activists protest patriarchy Anonymous takes action against censorship, corruption Greeks riot following teen’s death Greeks strike over budget Guatemalans protest lack of consultation over hydroelectric projects Haitians riot over food prices Icelanders protest financial crisis Icelanders refuse to pay off banking debt Indian professor stages hunger strike to save Ganges Indonesians protest fuel hike Iranian vendors strike over tax increase Irish protest illegitimate debts Italians strike over government handling of recession Côte Ivoirians riot over food and fuel prices Kenyans demand end to government stalemate (continued) (continued) Country Mozambique Nicaragua Niger Peru Philippines Poland Serbia Serbia Somalia South Korea Spain Sudan Thailand Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United States of America Chile China China China France France France Global Global Global ANNEXES 137 Start year 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 News headline Mozambicans riot over food and fuel prices Nicaraguans protest food prices Nigeriens protest food prices Peruvians protest rising food prices Filipinos demand resignation of president Nationalists Poles demonstrate on Independence Day Serbs protest Kosovo’s declaration of independence Serb hardliners protest Karadzic arrest Somalis riot over food prices South Koreans protest lifting beef ban Spaniards demand debate on Bolonia Process Sudanese demand respect for Darfuri students Thais call for resignation of government Tunisians protest nepotistic hiring Turks protest Internet censorship Ukrainians protest NATO, President Bush American indigenous communities demand environmental protections Mapuche communities in Chile demand land rights Ethnic Uyghurs in China protest Hong Kong protesters oppose construction of high-speed rail Chinese LGBTQ + rise for public awareness and recognition French workers strike for economic justice French citizens protest Notre-Dame-Des-Landes airport Protesters in Martinique and Guadeloupe strike over wages Activists protest at G20 summit in London Workers protest on May Day 2009 Activists protest at 2009 WSF (continued) 138 ANNEXES (continued) Country Global Global Greece Honduras Iceland Iceland Iran Ireland Italy Italy Italy Madagascar Madagascar Mali Mexico Mexico Morocco Niger Pakistan Palestine, Occupied Territory Peru Romania Romania Singapore South Korea Spain Spain Start year 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 News headline NGOs/CSOs and activists protest 2009 World Bank-IMF meeting Environmental activists protest at COP15 Greeks protest austerity measures, debt crisis Against government and 2009 coup ousting President Zelaya Icelanders protest mismanagement of financial crisis The Anthill: Icelanders popular national assembly Iranians protest election results Irish workers protest handling of economy Italians hold“No Berlusconi Day” in protest of Premier Italians demonstrate against threats to freedom of press Italy’s Five Star movement is a complex amalgam of social forces Malagasies protest in support of mayor Rajoelina Malagasy loyalists protest coup d’état Malian protesters oppose women’s rights bill Mexicans protest privatization of oil Mexican electricity workers protest government liquidation of company Moroccans demand human rights Nigeriens protest President Tandja Pakistanis protest feudal land grab Palestinians boycott products made in the settlements Indigenous Amazonians in Peru protest resource extraction Romanians protest austerity measures New wage law triggers general strike Singaporeans rally for same-sex rights South Koreans protest labor laws Spaniards protest evictions Fraudulent banking practices drive Spaniards to civil disobedience and occupations to demand refunds (continued) (continued) Country Tanzania Thailand United Kingdom United States of America United States of America United States of America United States of America Western Sahara Yemen Algeria Argentina Australia Bangladesh Bangladesh Belarus Bolivia Chile China China China China Colombia Ecuador France Germany Global Global ANNEXES 139 Start year 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 News headline Tanzanians protest land seizures Thais demand Prime Minister Abhisit’s resignation British energy workers protest layoffs Americans protest education cuts Tea Party movement demands fiscal restraint and limited government Americans demand LGBT rights Americans call for end to fossil fuels Western Saharans call for Aminatou Haidar’s return Yemenis call for secession of South Algerians demand reforms, resignation of president Qom indigenous tribe demands land rights The occupy movement of Australia Bangladeshi garment workers demand wage increase Bangladesh opposition party stages strikes Wide protest in Minsk following the re-election of Lukashenko Bolivians protest removal of fuel subsidies Gas price increase leads to conflict in Magallanes Macanese protesters in China demand rights, reforms Tibetan students protest language policy Workers in China protest poor conditions Annual New Year’s Eve Marches in support of Democracy in Hong Kong Movement against free trade treaties Police and military strike against President Correa and Law of Public Service French strike over pension reforms German workers demand labor rights Workers protest on May Day 2010 Europeans protest austerity measures (continued) 140 ANNEXES (continued) Country Global Global Greece Greece Greece Honduras Iceland India India Indonesia Indonesia Iran Iran Ireland Italy Ivory Coast Ivory Coast Jamaica Kenya Kyrgyzstan Malaysia Mozambique Start year 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 News headline Activists protest at 2010 G8/G20 meeting Grassroots alternative to the UN climate change meeting in Bolivia Greek“Den Plinoro” movement won’t pay Police shooting fuels movement against police brutality Greece rejects the Republic of Macedonia’s attempts to join NATO and the European Union Honduran campesinos demand land rights new governing parties following mass protests against the financial crisis ignite grassroots process and draft a new constitution Indian villagers protest thermal power project Indians protest fuel prices Indonesians protest Yudhoyono government Muslims in Indonesia protest removal of tomb Iranian merchants strike over tax increase Iranian gold and jewelry vendors strike over VAT tax Irish students protest increase in education fees Italian workers strike against austerity Transport workers in Cote D’Ivoire strike over price of diesel fuel Ouattara supporters in Ivory Coast protest election results Jamaican workers protest sale of airline Kenyans protest use of GM crops Kyrgyz people revolt against Bakiyev government Malagasies protest privatization of water management Mozambicans riot over food and utility prices (continued) (continued) Country Pakistan Peru Peru Portugal Portugal Portugal Russia South Korea Spain Spain Sri Lanka Tanzania Tanzania Tunisia Tunisia Turkey United Kingdom United Kingdom United States of America United States of America Western Sahara Angola Argentina Australia Australia Belarus Bolivia ANNEXES 141 Start year 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 News headline Dismissed union leaders escalates a service employee strike into an occupation Peruvians protest mining project Peruvians protest gas prices and revenue distribution of natural gas Portuguese protest gay marriage bill Portuguese workers strike over budget cuts Portuguese civil servants strike over austerity Nationalist Russian youths’ riot over race South Koreans protest G20 Spanish workers strike over labor reform Spaniards protest cutbacks Sri Lankans protest constructions of Seaplane platform Tanzanians demand election transparency Tanzanians demand free expression Tunisians demand social justice, democracy Tunisians revolt for democracy Turkish Kurds demand equal rights Brits protest austerity measures Brits protest high tuition fees Students protest revised history textbooks “Dreamers” call for pathway to citizenship Western Saharans protest Moroccan repression Angolans protest against President José Eduardo dos Santos Argentine hackers protest digital tax Australian public sector workers strike over wage and job cuts Occupy Australia In the midst of an economic crisis voices raise against Lukashenko’s rule Indigenous communities in Bolivia protest road construction (continued) 142 ANNEXES (continued) Country Brazil Brazil Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Canada Chile Chile Chile China China China China China China Colombia Colombia Croatia Democratic Republic of Congo Egypt Ethiopia Germany Start year 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 News headline Brazilian protesters demand reforms Brazilians march against corruption “Churrascada” in Higienopolis neighborhood due to the refuse to build a new subway station Bulgarians demonstrate against Roma community Protests demand resignation of President, democratic reforms, higher wages for troops and public servants, and economic freedom Quebecois students protest tuition hikes Chilean students demand education reform Chilean environmentalists protest hydroelectric dam Reforms of miners pay, and pension leads to strike Migrant workers in China protest conditions Ethnic Mongolians in China demand rights Residents protest construction of nuclear plant Chinese truckers strike for better conditions Protesters stage pro-democracy rallies across China Unlike the rest of China Wukan protest led to democratic reforms and elections Colombian miners’ strike over working conditions and pay Colombian students protest proposed reform Croatian veterans, nationalists protest Gotovina conviction Congolese protest election results Egyptians revolt against President Mubarak Ethiopian Muslims protest religious repression Germans protest economic inequality (continued) (continued) Country Germany Global Global Global Global Global Global Greece India Indonesia Iran Ireland Ireland Israel Italy Italy Italy Italy Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Libya Libya Mauritania Mauritania ANNEXES 143 Start year 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 News headline Anti-war militants demand the end of the Afghanistan war Activists call for release of Chinese artist Workers protest on May Day 2011 People around the world protest economic and social inequality Protesters dispute DRC election results Activists protest at 2011 WSF Activists protest at 2011 G20 meeting Greeks protest Canadian mining venture Indians protest corruption Indonesian protesters demonstrate against mining companies Iranians protest regime and repression Irish workers at Vita Cortex demand pay Residents in Ballhea, Ireland march to protest bailouts Israelis protest lack of social justice Italians strike over austerity Italians call for resignation of Berlusconi African immigrants in Italy protest killing of Senegalese vendors Italian women protest Berlusconi Japanese protest nuclear power post-Fukushima Jordanians demand reform from King Abdullah Kazakh oil workers’ strike over conditions Kyrgyz prisoners protest inhumane conditions Libyans demand end to Gaddafi regime Libyans protest lack of post-revolution reform Mauritanian activists jailed as police quash resurgent anti-slavery protests Mauritanians protest census (continued) 144 ANNEXES (continued) Country Mauritania Mexico Mexico Mexico Morocco Myanmar Niger Nigeria Oman Philippines Portugal Portugal Russia Russia Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia South Africa South Africa South Korea South Korea Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Sudan Syria Start year 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 News headline Mauritanians protest President Abdelaziz Mexican indigenous Huichol protest mining project Mexicans and Americans protest drug war AMLO calls for peaceful civil resistance and change in Mexico Moroccans protest autocratic regime Burmese protest copper mine Nigerians protest low living standards Nigerians protest election results Omanis demand reform Filipinos protest unjust economic policies Portuguese strike over budget cuts following bond downgrade Portuguese“desperate generation” demands reform Russian punk feminist band protests Putin Rally for fair local elections in Moscow Saudi families demand release of prisoners Saudi minorities demand reforms Saudi women demand right to vote Senegalese demand that President Wade step down Serb hardliners protest Mladic arrest South Africans demand greater economic power for black people South African“Occupy” movement demands economic justice South Koreans protest tuition hikes Student LGBTQ+ petition the government for more freedom Spaniards demand real democracy Sri Lankans protest new pension plan Sudanese demand reforms to democracy and departure of Omar al Bashir Sudanese protest food prices Syrians protest Assad (continued) (continued) Country Uganda Ukraine United Kingdom United Kingdom United Kingdom United Kingdom United States of America United States of America United States of America Uzbekistan Vietnam Vietnam Yemen Argentina Argentina Australia Bangladesh Canada China China China ANNEXES 145 Start year 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 News headline Ugandans demand lower prices: “Walk-to-work” protests Ukrainians demand Chernobyl cleanup Brits protest social service cuts Brits strike over government cuts London ++ riots after a man was killed by the police in the context of recession and austerity Occupy movement calls for economic justice Americans protest income inequality Americans in Wisconsin protest governor’s attempts to end collective bargaining Americans demand climate change action Uzbeks demand human rights Vietnamese protest Chinese Vietnamese Falun Gong members demand right to practice Yemenis demand democratic rule Argentinians protest President Fernández Argentinian workers strike over economic concerns Australian students protest education cuts Garment workers demand wage increase Indigenous communities in Canada demand rights and environmental protections Women in China demand gender equality The Moral and national education curriculum sparks protest from Hong Kong teachers and parents The rise of the modern Chinese feminist movement has roots in domestic violence (continued) 146 ANNEXES (continued) Country Colombia Czech Republic Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo Ecuador Egypt France Germany Ghana Global Global Global Global Global Global Global Greece Hungary Hungary Hungary India India India India Start year 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 News headline Colombians protest government priorities, tax and subsidy reform, too much focus on FARC and too little on people Largest protest since the fall of communism amidst austerity measures Congolese protest ongoing violence Christians protest government harassment Ecuadorian activists protest oil extraction Egyptians protest President Morsi French protest legalization of same-sex marriage Germans protest austerity Youths demand justice after opposition party claims of tampering with results of presidential election Workers protest on May Day 2012 Muslims protest United States following anti-Islam film release Europeans strike over austerity Europeans protest international copyright treaty Activists protest at 2012 G20 meeting Activists protest at Davos 2012 summit Activists protest at Rio + 20 Anti-austerity protests shift from streets to election of SYRIZA 2012–2015 Hungarians protest constitutional changes Hungarian far-right Jobbik party members hold anti-Roma march Hungarian students rally over education cuts Indian workers strike over conditions, anti-inflation measures India’s poor march for land rights Indians protest brutal gang rape Indian shopkeepers and laborers strike over foreign retailers (continued) (continued) Country Indonesia Ireland Israel Israel Italy Italy Italy Jamaica Jamaica Jordan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Libya Libya Macedonia Madagascar Mali Mexico Myanmar Nigeria Nigeria Palestine, Occupied Territory Palestine, Occupied Territory Peru Peru ANNEXES 147 Start year 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 News headline Indonesian workers protest for better conditions and benefits Irish protesters demonstrate against Labour Party Israeli workers strike over contract terms Israeli nationalists protest against African immigrants Italian mayors protest Stability Pact Italian students protest austerity measures Italians protest austerity measures, Monti government Jamaicans protest violence against women and girls Jamaicans demand justice for Tivoli Gardens victims Jordanians riot over fuel prices Kazakhs protest election results Kyrgyz protesters demand nationalization of gold mine Libyans protest militia groups Libyan oil workers block exports Macedonia’s Albanian minority demands equal rights Malagasies protest radio crackdown Malians protest government’s handling of conflict in north Mexican students demand media transparency Buddhists in Rakhine refuse to recognize rights for Rohingya Muslims Nigerians protest removal of fuel subsidy Nigerians protest corruption, fuel prices Palestinian prisoners stage hunger strike over administrative detention Palestinians protest PA, high food prices Peruvians protest new education law Peruvians protest mining project expansion (continued) 148 ANNEXES (continued) Country Peru Poland Poland Portugal Portugal Romania Romania Slovenia Slovenia South Africa South Africa Spain Spain Spain Spain Sudan Tanzania Tanzania Tunisia Ukraine United States of America United States of America United States of America United States of America United States of America United States of America Start year 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 News headline Peruvians protest corruption Polish Law and Justice Party supporters’ stage anti-government march Poles protest Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement Portuguese protest austerity Portuguese unions call strikes against austerity measures Romanian Protesters Urge Government’s Ouster Romanians protest fracking projects by Chevron Slovenians protest over austerity and corruption Slovenian public sector strikes over austerity South African miners’ strike over pay South African farmers strike over daily wages Spanish miners protest budget Catalonians demand independence Spaniards protest austerity measures Students protest reforms and privatization of education Sudanese protest austerity measures Tanzanians demand higher salaries Tanzanians demand equal pay for foreign workers Tunisians demand women’s rights Ukrainians protest push to make Russian official language Americans protest domestic citizen surveillance Americans protest raising debt ceiling Americans protest attacks on voting rights Americans demand justice for Trayvon Martin Americans demand rights for rape and violence victims Students Protesting Guns Say “Enough Is Enough” (continued) (continued) Country Yemen Zambia Argentina Australia Bangladesh Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Brazil Brazil Bulgaria Bulgaria Canada Chile Chile Colombia Colombia Croatia Croatia Denmark Egypt Ethiopia Germany ANNEXES 149 Start year 2012 2012 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 News headline Yemenis protest immunity for former president Zambians protest economic policies Mapuche indigenous people protest Chevron deal Australians Protest Five Years of Offshore Detention Policy Bangladeshis protest after Savar building collapse Workers in Bolivia demand higher pensions Bosnians block parliament to demand agreement on IDs Free transport ends Workers Party rule “No World Cup!” Activists call to invest in transport, education, health, wages, and housing Economic Policy changes lead to General Strike in Brazil Bulgarians protest Oresharski government Bulgarians protest Borisov cabinet Canadians protest handling of rape case March for territory and autonomy for the Mapuche people Fed up with privatization miners of Chile demand a rethinking of national policy Colombian workers demand reform Colombian farmers protest Monsanto Croats protest Cyrillic signs in Vukovar Croatian trade unions strike over austerity measures Danish teachers protest working conditions Egyptians protest coup Ethiopian protesters call for release of activists Germans protest NSA PRISM program (continued) 150 ANNEXES (continued) Country Germany Germany Germany Germany Germany Global Global Global Global Global Global Global Greece Greece India India India Indonesia Ireland Israel Italy Italy Start year 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 News headline Germans protest in favor of renewable energy Germans protest eviction at Rote Flora Thousands in Germany protest against Europe-U.S. trade deal Rise of AfD party sparks protests against it Alternative fur Deutschland party seeks power to enforce austerity and reform immigration Workers protest on May Day 2013 Activists protest Monsanto and GM crops Activists protest at 2013 WSF Bolivian president organizes summit to protest imperialism Anti-war protesters oppose intervention in Syria Day of protests against Europe’s austerity policies People protest inequality in 450 world locations Greek neo-Nazis protest construction of mosque Political violence erupts against journalists covering refugees in Greece Indians protest rape of child Indian workers strike over rising prices, low wages, poor implementation of labor laws and privatizations Indian farmers march against land acquisition in Haryana Indonesians protest Australian spy activities Irish protest bank debt burden Israelis protest planned removal of Bedouin settlements Italians protest austerity Italian anti-government protesters demonstrate against European Union, austerity measures (continued) (continued) Country Italy Japan Kenya Kenya Madagascar Malaysia Mali Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Mozambique Niger Pakistan Palestine, Occupied Territory Philippines Philippines Poland Poland Poland Portugal Portugal Portugal Romania Russia Russia ANNEXES 151 Start year 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 News headline Italian immigration policy increasingly fueled by racism and challenges to right to asylum Japanese protest secrecy law Kenyan demonstrators protest MP pay raises Kenyans demand justice for gang rape victim Malagasies protest Rio Tinto mine Malaysian opposition supporters rally against alleged election fraud Protesters decry continued French military intervention in the country Protesters interrupt Macedonian gay pride marches Economic austerity and failure of the new government to deliver on anti-corruption led to mass grassroot movement Mozambicans demand security, oppose civil war Mozambican brick makers protest loss of livelihoods Nigerians demand investment from mining company Pakistanis protest government corruption Protesting Israel’s imperialism and conflict Filipino students protest high tuition Filipinos protest pork barrel spending Poles strike for labor reform Poles protest Chevron Polish unionists protest reforms Portuguese workers strike over austerity Portuguese march against poverty Portuguese protest 2014 budget proposal Romanians protest gold-mining project Russians protest persecution of activists Russians protest anti-LGBT bill (continued) 152 ANNEXES (continued) Country Singapore South Africa South Korea Sri Lanka Sudan Tanzania Thailand Tunisia Turkey Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom United Kingdom United Kingdom United States of America Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Burkina Faso Chad Chile Chile China Ecuador Ethiopia France Start year 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 News headline Singaporeans protest Immigrant Rights South Africans protest Obama visit South Koreans protest electioneering Sri Lankans demand explanation for disappearances Sudanese protest land sales Tanzanians protest Mtwara pipeline Thais demand the creation of a People’s Council Tunisians protest Islamic government Turks protest destruction of park Turks demand civil rights Ukrainians call for Yanukovych resignation Brits protest after soldier’s killing Brits call for an end to Bedroom Tax Brits protest plans to cut NHS funds Black Lives Matter Bolivian soldiers charged with mutiny and sedition after demanding equal treatment with higher ranks Bosnians protest corrupt political system Protests against amendment to the constitution raise need for democratic reforms Activists march against fuel shortages and government inaction Students push back against Bachelet education reforms, demanding greater action March of all Marches presses Bachelet to deliver on reforms for social and economic justice Electoral reforms spark democratic demands in Hong Kong “No!” to labor reforms and for better education Protesters bash urban plans threatening rural communities French farmers protest low living standards and European Union policy (continued) (continued) Country Germany Ghana Global Global Greece Haiti Hungary India India Iran Iran Ireland Israel Ivory Coast Kenya Madagascar Mexico Mexico Nicaragua ANNEXES 153 Start year 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 News headline PEGIDA stokes fear of Muslim immigrants and refugees Protesters blame government for rising cost of living and currency crisis Mayday protests in 2014 focused on protesting austerity measures Protesters organize worldwide to denounce Israeli attack on Gaza Greece protests over government plans to sell off historic national buildings Protests demand government resignation over mismanagement of earthquake crisis A tax on internet data transfer leads to protests on taxation and beyond “Kiss of love” protests moral policing and rules regarding public demonstration of affection Students demand investigation into molestation of a female student on Campus Iranian teachers protest wages Protesters decry government inaction following acid attacks on women in Isfahan Soggy Ireland rebels against austerity fueled water charges Israeli ultra-Orthodox gather in mass rally over call to lift their protection from army draft Former rebels protest demanding payment of bonuses and past salaries MyDressMyChoice is a rallying cry for women’s safety and freedom in Kenya Electricity shortages spark riots Mexico claims justice against the killing of students Protests against the construction of the new airport in Mexico Df Nicaraguans against the interoceanic canal (continued) 154 ANNEXES (continued) Country Nigeria Pakistan Palestine, Occupied Territory Russia South Africa Spain Ukraine United Kingdom Zambia Angola Australia Bolivia Bolivia Brazil Canada Canada Democratic Republic of Congo Ecuador El Salvador Start year 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 News headline #BringBackOurGirls and Salvation Rally against violence and the President and police corruption Following allegations of irregularities in 2013 elections PTI request electoral reforms and resignation of PM Nawaz Sharif New series of Palestinian protests seen as signs of third intifada Opposition to Russia military involvement in Ukraine hits the streets Violent protests over electricity and water shortages Spain austerity: Spending protest in Burgos Pro-Russian unrest east of Ukraine escalates into war United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) urges Brexit Riots lead to the reinstatement of Edgar Lungu as secretary general of the ruling party Angola in transition towards a more democratic rule of law White Australians deny rights of Muslim and non-white immigrants Bolivia signs with Rosatom to build research and nuclear power station for uranium mining Miners’ protest Brazilians protest corruption, President Dilma Rousseff and Lula Unions and community groups join student-led anti-austerity protests National anti-terror law threatens rights to speech and assembly Keep the planned elections in 2016 No to new inheritance taxes against President Correa reelection and his Secretary of Buen Vivir(Welfare) Half a million Salvadorans march against gang violence (continued) (continued) Country Ethiopia France Germany Ghana Global Global Guatemala Guatemala India Israel Italy Jamaica Jamaica Japan Kenya Kosovo Kosovo Lebanon Macedonia ANNEXES 155 Start year 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 News headline Two largest ethnic groups defy government ban on protest in clash with police Following deadly attack on newspaper French march in solidarity of freedom of expression Nordkreuz infiltration of army reserves continues Ghanaians protest years of power outages Mayday protests in 2015 against austerity; racial justice also a component in United States Activists protest at the WSF 2015 National protests against corruption demand the whole government step down Guatemala proclaims the end of corruption and impunity Cow vigilantes’ protests Protesters decry police racism against Ethiopian Jews Expo emerges as hotbed of labor exploitation Kingston residents claim to keep police officer Parents and students strike against a decision to merge schools Huge rally staged in Tokyo against legislation that would allow the military to deploy overseas Protesters march in Nairobi after $100 million in public money revealed stolen by government workers and business contacts Kosovar Albanians protest government official, mining dispute Kosovo opposition parties disrupt parliament over deals with Serbia, Montenegro Protests against garbage collection issues in Lebanon become protests against the entire political system Macedonians protest after revelations of corruption (continued) 156 ANNEXES (continued) Country Malaysia Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Nepal Nepal Romania South Africa South Korea Spain Ukraine United Kingdom United States of America United States of America United States of America Argentina Australia Bangladesh Start year 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2016 2016 2016 News headline Following a financial corruption scandal Malaysians demand resignation of prime minister Najib Razak Montenegrins protest PM Djukanovic Women demand personal freedoms in face of harassment prosecutions for “indecent exposure” Protests follow the assassination of Franco-Mozambican constitutionalist Gilles Cistac Citizens demand federalism and inclusion of marginal regions in Nepal’s new Constitution Maoists strike to demand affordable food and energy A nightclub fire creates a storm against government corruption Police clash with students demanding lower tuition fees Protests demand ouster of President Park following unpopular education and labor reforms Fines and jail for exercising democratic rights to freedom of expression, assembly, and protest lead to“hologram protests” Proposed autonomy plans lead to years of protests in unsolved Donbass Issue Remain movement rises up in face of Brexit demand White nationalism and sexism gains steam in United States Trump and Tea Party movement rise together Political leaders for a new progressive movement Social groups organize massive mobilization against Macri government austerity policies Rising racism in Australia provokes anti-racist backlash Bangladeshi workers demand better working conditions (continued) ANNEXES 157 (continued) Country Bolivia Brazil Cameroon Canada Chad Chad Chile China China Colombia Colombia Colombia Colombia Democratic Republic of Congo France Germany Germany Ghana Start year 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 News headline Persons with disabilities demand better pensions Anti-corruption protests take turn to the right, embracing guns and return to monarchy A protest to keep common law turns into a separatist movement Black lives matter in Canada too Rape of 18-year-old woman ignites antigovernment protests on a variety of issues Teachers strike against government-imposed austerity Chileans demand the elimination of Pinochet era private pensions and the institution of public pensions Villagers take to the streets after their representative is arrested Attempts to forcibly remove street food stands causes riots in Hong Kong Colombians take the streets denouncing living conditions asking for a better future in EL Paro Nacional Taxi drivers clash with UBER in Colombia Truck drivers block the country to make the government react Colombians demand an end to gender violence Congolese demand new elections be held A large movement protests new labor laws and capitalism “Blockupy” protests against bankers and austerity broadens to the plight of refugees Simmering dispute between squatters and police in Berlin erupts into violence Ghanaians protest rising fuel and electricity tariffs (continued) 158 ANNEXES (continued) Country Global Global Greece Greece Greece Hungary Iceland Iceland India India Indonesia Iran Kazakhstan Kenya Morocco Peru Philippines Start year 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 News headline Mayday 2016 turn violent in many cities with a focus on the need to change the system Protests at the WSF 2016 oppose the World Economic Forum farmers protest planned tax rises and pension reforms Greek police used tear gas on pensioners at anti-austerity protest Humanitarian crisis in Greece’s refugee camps Hungarian teachers strike for better pay and freedom to choose textbooks Islanders call on Prime Minister to resign in corruption scandal Icelanders rail against Prime Minister’s corruption exposed by Panama Papers Protests erupt against violence and human rights abuses by Indian security forces in Kashmir JNU students and faculty protest arrest of student leader on sedition charges Islamist protests against Governor of Jakarta Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, who was accused of committing blasphemy of the Quran Government arrests leader of march to tomb of pre-Islamic Persian king Cyrus the Great Massive protests against land reforms allowing foreigners to rent Kazakh land are fueled by fears of Chinese takeover Protests against corruption in the national electoral commission met with violence by authorities Rifis demand protection of their culture, investments in the region and demilitarization Peruvian claim gender justice Protesters demand government relief after drought caused by el Niño (continued) (continued) Country Philippines Philippines Poland South Korea Spain Tanzania Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukraine United Kingdom United States of America Zimbabwe Argentina Argentina Belarus Bolivia Brazil ANNEXES 159 Start year 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 News headline Protesters come out against United States military presence in the country Protesters denounce President Duterte’s drug war and extrajudicial killings, demanding his resignation Anti-abortion law drives thousands of women to the streets Hundreds of thousands demand resignation of President Park Geun-hye Spaniards protest new conservative government and reforms Opposition parties call for nationwide rallies to protest the government’s ban on broadcasting live parliamentary debates Protests erupt when high unemployment linked to rising suicide rate Tunisians protest state of emergency following coup attempt in 2016 Protesters contest the re-election of Museveni and irregularities in the vote Ukrainians protest corruption practices Black Lives Matter in the United Kingdom “Not My President” movement emerges in wake of Trump victory Decades of corruption, economic hardship and overall repression from the Mugabe regime sparks protest demanding change Against Pension Reform Students and Teachers Protest Against Education Reform After the government voted a new tax people called for economic reform and resignation of President Lukashenko Bolivians protest Morales’ new bid to extend term limits Out with President Temer! (continued) 160 ANNEXES (continued) Country Canada Czech Republic Germany Germany Germany Germany Global Global Global Global Global Global Honduras Hungary India Iran Ivory Coast Kenya Start year 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 News headline Anti-immigrant and allied groups clash with immigrant-rights and anti-racist groups Andrej Babis tax evasion as prime minister leads to massive demonstrations Anarchists on fringe of G20 peaceful protests loot and burn shops Growing opposition to migrants after German citizen killed in Chemnitz Counter-protesters face off against anti-immigration groups Germany: Thousands of protesters demand European Union open borders Mayday 2017 sees immigrant workers rights at the forefront of the struggle The#metoo movement generates global awareness on violence against women Overshadowed by riots, 100,000 attend alt-G20 summit for global justice Time to regulate social media-the most powerful marketing tool an extremist could hope for As the United States recognizes Jerusalem as Israel’s capital Muslims around the world hold protests Activists protest at 2017 G20 meeting Hondurans protest electoral fraud New law regulating foreign higher education in Hungary leads to anti-government protest Supreme Court ruling bans Jalikatu (Tamil Bull Taming), sparking protests Iranians protest high prices for basic good Military demand better severances and threaten to mutiny to obtain better pay Protests over election fraud turn deadly in Kenya (continued) (continued) Country Kyrgyzstan Mexico Mozambique Niger Nigeria Nigeria Pakistan Pakistan Palestine, Occupied Territory Peru Peru Peru Peru Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Poland Portugal ANNEXES 161 Start year 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 News headline Supporters of Kyrgyz opposition leader protest his arrest Mexicans protest hike in energy prices Protesters demand justice following assassination of Mayor Morreu Mahamudo Amurane Police violently disperse demonstration denouncing government corruption and electricity shortages Beset by economic, political woes, Nigerians protest for change Nigerians protest massively to #endSARS Followers of radical cleric protest perceived softening of blasphemy laws and demand resignation of law minister Shias in Pakistan’s Parachinar caught in the middle of proxy wars Protesting Temple Mount Security Peruvians protest Odebrecht corruption Teachers demand higher budget allocation to education Peruvians protest pardon of former President Fujimori Peruvian protest“gender ideology” Filipinos protest non-delivery of promised housing by national housing authority Protesters demand transportation policy based on national industrialization Protesters object to proposed lowering of income taxes Protesters decry police state and anti-terror Law Poles gather against Supreme Court legislation seen as an attack on judiciary independence Portugal emerges as European Union exception to the sway of populism (continued) 162 ANNEXES (continued) Country Romania Russia Somalia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Turkey Uganda United Kingdom United States of America United States of America United States of America Zambia Argentina Brazil Bulgaria Bulgaria Canada Canada Chile Start year 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 News headline Romanians protest planned prison pardons and demand the government’s resignation Russians stage massive protest against state corruption Military personnel protest the non-payment of their salaries Tens of thousands call for President Zuma’s resignation Catalans demand independence from Spain Sri Lankans protests Hambantota port deal seen as debt trap Political and grassroots activists protest government crackdown on opposition under emergency law instated after 2016 coup Ugandans protest removal of age limit on Uganda presidential office, allowing Museveni to run again in 2021 #MeToo United Kingdom Protests erupt against Trump travel bans and detention Me Too movement takes on patriarchy and sexual harassers QAnon exponential growth threatens United States political order Multiple corruption scandals spark protest movement in Zambia General Strike says NO to IMF cuts and reforms Protests against fuel price hike demand President Temer step down Bulgarians protest construction of ski resort on Pirin National Park UNESCO site No new taxes on cars and fuel Canada spawns its own yellow vests movement against a carbon tax Canadians rally across country to call for bolder action on climate change #Meetoo#NiUnaMas Feminists mobilize against machismo and patriarchal society (continued) (continued) Country China Colombia Czech Republic Dominican Republic El Salvador France Ghana Global Global Global Global Haiti Hungary Hungary Iceland India Iran Ireland ANNEXES 163 Start year 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 News headline Technology workers demand better working conditions at Jasic Technology Students protest to guarantee a proper budget for education Czechs demand the resignation of prime minister in multiple demonstrations Dominicans protest gender violence New water laws raise concerns about private sector involvement In France the yellow vests protest against the system first then against others Thousands support“Ghana first!” protest against new defense deal and increased United States military presence Starting 2018 youth activists strike and protest the inaction of government on climate change around the world Mayday 2018 has been refocusing on traditional wage and labor condition issues with an anti-austerity focus in the West Activists protest at the WSF 2018 Activists protest 2018 G20 Meeting in Argentina Haiti protests high fuel prices and corruption Hungarians protest an election seen as deeply undemocratic Demonstrators call new overtime law Slave Law and protest entire government policies #MeToo is Moving Forward Dalits protest supreme court ruling that weakens protections for lower caste minorities Teachers protest privatization of educational system Black lives matter in Ireland spurs call for hate crime laws (continued) 164 ANNEXES (continued) Country Israel Italy Italy Ivory Coast Jordan Madagascar Malaysia Myanmar Nicaragua Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Oman Pakistan Palestine, Occupied Territory Peru Peru Start year 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 News headline Israel’s LGBT community calls for strike after surrogacy bill defeat Salvini’s Lega Nord party rebrands itself as“the Lega” Sardine’s movement forms in response to the Lega party’s rise to power Opposition criticized inauguration of new Senate Government plans to raise taxes spark the largest protests in years in Jordan Protesters reject new electoral law as too restrictive and allege presidential corruption Ethnic Malays protest government plan to ratify U.N. treaty against racial discrimination that would end Malay affirmative action Protesters denounce a proposed law to curb free speech and peaceful protest Nicaragua claims the government to resign Wildfires in UNESCO heritage spark protests against government Protester object to provisions in new finance law favoring foreign companies Nigerian security forces resorted to violence to end Shiite Muslim protests in Abuja Young Omanis protest high unemployment Protesters decry inaction of the government following abduction and murder of 6-year-old Zainab Ansari The continued Israeli blockade on Gaza creates new dimensions of an old conflict Peruvian peasants and indigenous demand better prices from FTAs Peruvians protest corruption and elites (continued) (continued) Country Philippines Russia Senegal South Africa Spain Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Tanzania Tunisia Turkey Turkey Turkey United Kingdom United Kingdom United States of America Vietnam ANNEXES 165 Start year 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 News headline Protesters denounce deference to China in President Duterte’s foreign policy Russians protest the increase of retirement age Opponents protesting vote in Parliament to revise electoral code are arrested in Dakar Protesters demand a higher minimum wage Thousands protest bail for convicted sex abusers in rape cases Supporters of a united Spain protest against Catalan separation Sri Lankans take to the streets in defense of unconstitutionally sacked prime minister Rising prices became an omnibus protest against the government of Omar Al Bashir Government adopts harsh measures against supporters of U.S.-based Tanzanian social media activist Continued economic hardships after 2010 revolution leads to demand for repeal of 2018 budget Anti-war protesters supporting Syrian rights arrested and detained Trade unions protest working conditions on the construction site of the new Istanbul Airport Metal workers demand wage raises Extinction Rebellion launches campaign of civil disobedience for climate justice Tens of thousands take to the streets to protest visits of United States President Trump Essential workers assert the right to do jobs safely in the face of threats Vietnamese protest special economic zones and land leasing to Chinese companies (continued) 166 ANNEXES (continued) Country Zimbabwe Algeria Angola Argentina Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Canada Chile China Colombia Colombia Colombia Democratic Republic of Congo Dominican Republic Ecuador France Germany Germany Start year 2018 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 News headline Zimbabwe election unrest turns deadly as army opens fire on protesters Algerians demand the end of the FLN and its representation in government The movement for independence of Cabinda from Angola revival Economic and social crisis follow IMF program The revolution of the Pititas ousts President Morales Protesters demand education and pension reforms Do not appoint the sole candidate for prosecutor Ivan Geshev First Nations protesters rise up against pipeline projects “Estallido social” demands public pensions, social services, and a new constitution Protest against new extradition law spirals into wide protest regarding HK sovereignty “Paro Nacional” denounce government management of Peace Process “Minga por la Vida” blocks the main road of the country asking the government to deliver Massive march against corruption and state violence Congolese ask UN and government to protect civilians “Marcha Verde” against corruption and impunity for elites Ecuadorans protest austerity reforms by IMF and Presidency Newly suggested pension reforms revive and old French trade union struggle Giant protests against regulation of social media and internet Movement grows behind demand for bolder climate policies (continued) (continued) Country Germany Ghana Global Global Global India India Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Iran Israel Italy Jordan Kazakhstan ANNEXES 167 Start year 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 News headline German“Yellow Vests” protest being ignored in climate policy Ghanaians protest$200 m parliament building Mayday 2019 sees anti capitalists in the United States and demands for a European minimum wage Amazon workers strike over labor conditions and wages Activists protest 2019 G20 meeting in Japan Protests demand repeal of citizenship amendment act that limits citizenship access rights for Muslims Protesters rain against government decision to end Kashmir special status 43 Papuan students arrested for disrespecting the Indonesian Flag Presidential challenger Subianto claimed cheating on elections and refused to accept defeat Against“omnibus bill” labor flexibilization law Against“omnibus bill” labor flexibilization law Protests against religious revisions of Criminal Code Bill Protests against religious revisions of Criminal Code Bill Iran’s Supreme Leader orders bloodiest crackdown on protesters since the 1979 Islamic Revolution Ethiopian-Israeli protests resume after pause Italy’s Orange Vest movement takes cue from Yellow Vests in call for government to resign Amidst crackdown, teacher’s union leads protests against government corruption Government opposition protests demand full relief for debtors hit by the COVID-19 lockdown and reclamation of privatized land (continued) 168 ANNEXES (continued) Country Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan Lebanon Madagascar Mauritania Mexico Morocco Myanmar Nepal Niger Pakistan Russia Singapore South Africa South Africa South Korea Spain Start year 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 News headline Protests against corruption follow whistleblower claim of massive government bribery Kyrgyz police disperse anti-Chinese rally Lebanese demonstrations keep gaining momentum against corruption sectarianism and political mismanagement Madagascar police break up post-election protest Opposition parties protest the first-round election of the ruling party candidate Airport blocked by federal police asking the government to pay their salaries Last straw for Moroccans tired of government harassment of journalists Activists protest the construction of a Chinese dam in northern Myanmar Protesters organize to stop new Guthi Bill ending patriarchal landownership Protesters demand departure of foreign forces from Niger following a deadly attack on an army camp All male Islamist convoy demands resignation of PM Khan Rejected independent candidates from local elections spark protests in Moscow Singaporean climate activists targeted by police In national crisis of violence against women protesters call for death penalty against perpetrators Widespread looting and protests in the transport industry follow a wave of anti-foreigner sentiment Protests call for the resignation of President Moon Jae-in and Justice Minister Cho Kuk for corruption Catalonians strike and march against jail sentences for separatists’ leaders (continued) ANNEXES 169 (continued) Country Sudan Uzbekistan Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Argentina Bangladesh Bangladesh Belarus Bolivia Brazil Brazil Bulgaria Canada Chile China Democratic Republic of Congo Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt Start year 2019 2019 2019 2019 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 News headline Amidst ongoing military transition, protesters denounce toxic effects of mining and killings of civilians Energy shortages spark protests throughout country Increased fuel prices lead to large protests in Zimbabwe Main opposition party launches a series of protests on economic and human rights issues anti-quarantine COVID-19 protests Boycott France/West and caricatures of Prophet Muhammad Garment workers demand salaries during COVID-19 lockdown The largest movement in Belarus organizes against Lukashenko ahead of presidential elections Bolivians protest election delays Demonstrators in Brazil protest crimes committed by police Brazilians bang pots to protest Bolsonaro handling of pandemic while others turn out to support him “Mafia out!” Protesters demand resignation of PM Boyko Borissov Unprecedented array of allies fight to protect climate, indigenous and next generation Chileans in Covid quarantine demand,“We are hungry and need jobs!” Mongolians protest Beijing imposed new Mandarin Chinese school program Congolese protest for a free and fair election by requesting a new Chairman of the electoral commission Dominicans protest in favor of democracy Ecuadorans protest wage cuts and lack of funds to fight COVID-19 Egyptians take to streets in rare protests against President el-Sisi (continued) 170 ANNEXES (continued) Country El Salvador El Salvador Ethiopia Germany Global Global Global Global Global Global Hungary Iceland India India Indonesia Ireland Israel Start year 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 News headline Salvadorans take the streets against government COVID-19 measures Women in El Salvador and around the region defend abortion rights Oromia ethnic protests erupt after killing of singer Coronavirus: Thousands protest in Germany against restrictions Mayday 2020 highlights the role and risks taken by often little compensated essential workers as well as fears of massive job losses due the crisis The black lives matter in the United States draws support from anti-racists around the world The restrictions imposed by countries to fight the pandemic saw the beginning of a grassroots movement against restrictions Protests against Covid related sanitary restrictions seen all around the globe QAnon Goes Global As Arab nations normalize ties with Israel protesters take the streets in defense of Palestinian rights Demonstrators fear a loss of autonomy at their university after new government appointed board Black lives matter in Iceland too Protests against attack to JNU university Protests against attack to JNU university The largest coordinated strike in history sees 250 million people protest government plan to dismantle labor rights Controversy on a series of laws discussed by parliament Yellow Vests movement protests masks and curbs to personal freedoms Netanyahu’s handling of pandemic sparks calls for his resignation following corruption charges (continued) (continued) Country Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Kenya Kenya Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan Madagascar Mali Mexico Mexico Mexico Morocco Nigeria Nigeria Palestine, Occupied Territory Poland ANNEXES 171 Start year 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 News headline Côte d’Ivoire shaken by multiple demonstrations against President Ouattara’s bid for more time in office Jamaicans’ Black Lives Matter Millions of tweets force Japan’s government to delay a bill that critics say threatens judicial independence Police stage violent crackdown on peaceful protests against government corruption Medical workers protest lack of pay and personal protective equipment against Covid Kyrgyz parliament approves law allowing internet censorship Kyrgyz stage revolution after corrupt 2020 elections Anti-lockdown protests fueled by stories of police killing of a street vendor Protesters demand resignation of president following irregularities in 2018 and 2020 elections and ongoing Northern Mali war Mexicans protest gender violence and femicides Mexicans protest police brutality Mexican feminists demand decriminalization of abortion on the Global Day of Action for Access to Abortion Thousands march to denounce social inequalities, demand the release of “political detainees” and call for“true democracy” Protesters demand good governance and justice from Nigerian government Nigerian women take to the streets to protest rape and sexual violence Protesters reject Trump peace plan for the middle east seen as de facto an apartheid regime LGBT community of Poland protest arrest of activist and LGBT aggressions (continued) 172 ANNEXES (continued) Country Portugal Portugal Russia Senegal Somalia Somalia South Africa South Africa South Korea Spain Thailand Tunisia Turkey Turkey Uganda Start year 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 News headline Portuguese workers protest for better wages amid pandemic Black Lives Matter in Portugal Moscow accuses and fires governor on allegations of crime sparking protests in his defense Protesters demand end to curfew and other health restrictions due to Covid pandemic The killing of two men during an imposed curfew to curb coronavirus spread sparks protests Protests erupt against Al Shabab following the death of over 90 people in bombing The Move One Million march promises to take a peaceful stand against corruption and forms of brutality Medical workers protest lack of pay and personal protective equipment against COVID-19 Protests call for President Moon to step down over policy failures, election corruption and kowtowing to North Korea Protesters denounce government mismanagement of COVID-19 lockdowns Abuse of military power in place since 2014 leads Thais back to the streets Protests point to failure of various governments to bring economic success to the country after the political revolution Protesters denounce government plan to withdraw from the Istanbul treaty protecting women from violence Metal workers demand wage increases and better working conditions Protests break out on coronavirus pandemic response and mismanagement of relief and testing measures (continued) ANNEXES 173 (continued) Country Start year News headline United States of America Zimbabwe 2020 2020 United States President stokes rebellion against state and local pandemic restrictions Activists launch social media campaign against human rights abuses 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Index A Activism/activists, 4, 8, 21, 24, 25, 32, 41, 47, 49, 51, 52, 54, 55, 58, 61, 62, 69, 99, 113, 114, 119, 122, 123, 125, 130, 133–138, 140, 143, 146, 149–152, 155, 160, 162, 163, 165, 167, 168, 171, 173 Agrarian/land reform, 8, 18, 29, 33, 37, 106, 113, 121 Anonymous, 24, 40, 49, 136 Arab Spring, 4, 9, 24, 32, 43, 51, 53, 61, 63, 64, 70, 73, 99, 100, 112, 123 Arrests, 9, 41, 69, 74–77, 102, 111, 115, 124, 137, 144, 158, 161, 171 Austerity, 1, 3, 7, 15, 18, 27–31, 33–35, 52, 54–56, 60, 62, 65, 66, 71, 77, 78, 88, 90, 99, 104, 112, 114, 126, 134, 138–141, 143, 145–151, 153–157, 166 Authoritarian, 9, 83, 84, 87–89, 116, 135 B Black Lives Matter, 53, 152, 157, 159, 163, 170–172 Blockades, 8, 52, 58, 59, 78, 114, 123, 130, 164 Boycott, 9, 62, 71, 123, 126–128, 131, 138, 169 C Capture, 61, 87, 96, 114 China, 9, 18, 24, 26, 31–33, 35, 37, 41, 42, 47, 56, 60, 64, 67–69, 73, 76, 93, 96, 113, 115, 123, 131, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139, 142, 145, 152, 157, 163, 165, 166, 169 Citizen surveillance, 22, 26, 40, 107, 121, 148 Civil disobedience, 8, 47, 58, 59, 61, 114, 123, 128, 130, 138, 165 Civil rights, 1, 3, 8, 15, 19, 36–39, 52, 54, 69, 102, 113, 114, 117, 122, 152 Civil servants, 97, 141 Civil Society Organization(CSO), 8, 49, 50, 52, 113, 122, 133, 134, 138 Climate change, 14, 43, 47, 49, 52, 54, 56, 62, 104, 114, 125, 130, 134, 140, 145, 162, 163 © The Editor(s)(if applicable) and The Author(s) 2022 179 I. Ortiz et al., World Protests, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7 180 INDEX Climate justice, 8, 18, 45, 47, 104, 113, 122, 165 Communism, 121, 146 Corona-Virus Disease of 2019 (COVID-19), 3, 20, 27, 31, 40, 42, 59, 60, 88, 90, 167, 169, 170, 172 Corporate influence, 7, 18, 28, 29, 31, 87, 103, 113, 120, 121 Corporations, 9, 26, 27, 31, 32, 48, 64, 65, 71, 90, 94, 97, 102–104, 115, 123 Corruption, 1, 3, 7, 9, 18, 21, 22, 24, 25, 52, 53, 55, 60, 64, 78, 79, 84, 85, 87, 88, 94–97, 103, 112, 114, 116, 117, 121, 130, 133, 136, 142, 143, 147, 148, 151, 154–156, 158, 159, 161–164, 166–168, 170–173 Crisis/financial crisis, 6, 18, 21, 27, 31, 49, 62, 66, 70, 71, 84, 87–89, 112, 136, 138, 140, 141, 153, 158, 166, 168, 170 D Deep government, 7, 18, 22, 26, 85, 96, 106, 113, 121 Democracy, 2–4, 19–21, 48, 60, 63, 78, 79, 86, 88, 89, 93, 94, 96, 103, 108, 112, 113, 116, 131, 139, 141, 144, 169, 171 Deny/denial of rights, 8, 18, 36, 38, 84–86, 113, 116, 122, 154 Deportation, 75, 115, 124, 128 Deregulation, 7, 18, 29, 31, 32, 103, 105, 113, 121 Development/development policies, 2, 3, 7, 10, 19, 27, 40, 47, 69, 96, 102, 103, 107, 108, 112, 117, 129 Direct action, 8, 47, 52, 58, 59, 61, 114, 123 Disinformation, 3, 88, 89, 116 Displaced people, 75, 115, 124 E East Asia and Pacific, 14, 21, 24, 37, 47, 51 Economic justice, 15, 19, 24, 27–30, 42, 54, 68, 87, 100, 113, 132, 137, 144, 145, 152 Economic system, 19, 43, 51, 63, 102, 112, 114, 115, 123 Education, 3, 24, 31, 37, 52, 53, 55, 60, 69, 77, 100, 103, 114, 121, 139, 140, 142, 145–149, 152, 156, 159–161, 163, 166 Elections, 25, 37, 43, 69, 73, 77–79, 88, 97, 98, 125, 128, 132, 134, 135, 138, 140–144, 146, 147, 151, 154, 157, 160, 163, 166–169, 171, 172 Elites, 21, 27, 31, 32, 51, 65, 70, 84, 86–88, 93, 94, 96, 102, 103, 114, 115, 123, 130, 164, 166 Employers, 8, 50, 64, 71, 115, 122, 123 Environment, 37, 45, 47, 104, 122 Ethnic, 8, 18, 36–38, 40, 50, 71, 73, 78, 88, 104, 113, 122, 137, 142, 155, 164, 170 European Central Bank(ECB), 8, 9, 18, 47, 48, 62, 66, 70, 113, 115, 123 Europe and Central Asia, 14, 21, 28, 37, 42, 47, 68, 95 European Union(EU), 8, 9, 18, 48, 54, 65, 66, 84, 87, 94, 102, 113, 115, 116, 123, 140, 150, 152, 160, 161 F Facebook, 61 Farmers, 32, 33, 48, 52, 72, 73, 100, 114, 131, 133, 135, 148–150, 152, 158 Fees, 60, 69, 127, 140, 141, 156 Financial sector, 9, 66, 70, 71, 104, 115, 123 INDEX 181 Fiscal justice, 7, 18, 27, 29, 32, 104, 113, 121 Food prices, 8, 18, 29, 35, 60, 72, 73, 107, 113, 121, 135–137, 144, 147 Fraud, 24, 25, 43, 60, 77, 104, 151, 160 Freedom of assembly/association, 8, 18, 36, 38, 41, 57, 72, 106, 113, 122 Freedom of speech/press, 8, 17, 18, 19, 36, 38, 41, 94, 106, 113, 122, 138 Free trade, 8, 18, 34, 44, 48, 62, 66, 70, 107, 113, 115, 123, 133, 139 Fuel/energy prices, 8, 18, 27, 29, 34, 60, 77, 79, 86, 100, 106, 113, 115, 121, 134–137, 139, 140, 147, 152, 157, 161–163, 169 G General assembly(ies), 71, 123 Girls’ rights, 8, 18, 37, 41, 97, 98, 113, 117, 122 Global commons, 8, 18, 40, 45, 49, 107, 113, 122 Globalization, 43, 84, 88 Global justice, 3, 8, 15, 18, 43–47, 69, 113, 122, 160 Global protests, 2, 14–16, 27, 28, 40, 42, 47, 49, 67, 68, 73, 98, 112 Government, 3, 4, 9, 10, 19, 20, 25–27, 32–34, 47, 49, 50, 52–54, 56, 59–63, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 78, 86, 93, 94, 97, 100, 102, 106–108, 112, 114, 115, 117, 122–124, 127, 128, 130, 131, 133, 135–140, 144–149, 151–153, 155–159, 161–168, 170–172 Grassroots, 4, 8, 50–52, 113, 122, 140, 151, 162, 170 Grievance, 3, 4, 6–8, 15, 17–23, 27–30, 32, 33, 37–39, 44–46, 67, 68, 77–79, 85, 87, 89, 96, 97, 100–107, 111–113, 115, 117, 120, 121 Group of 20(G20), 8, 14, 18, 43, 49, 70, 73, 77, 94, 102, 107, 113, 115, 122, 123, 137, 140, 141, 143, 146, 160, 163, 167 H Hackers/hacktivists, 8, 24, 40, 50, 61, 114, 122, 141 Hacking, 71, 123 Harassment, 41, 63, 75, 86, 99, 115, 117, 124, 146, 156, 168 Health, 24, 31, 37, 40, 52, 55, 59, 103, 114, 121, 149, 172 High-income countries, 14, 20, 24, 27, 35, 68, 90, 93, 96, 112 Housing, 8, 18, 29, 35, 37, 103, 107, 113, 121, 149, 161 Human rights, 7, 10, 62, 72, 73, 79, 102–105, 107, 111, 117, 138, 145, 158, 169, 173 Hunger strike, 9, 43, 62, 114, 123, 129, 132, 136, 147 I Imperialism, 8, 9, 18, 44, 56, 70, 79, 113, 115, 150, 151 Indigenous peoples, 25, 37, 40, 104, 149 Indignados(Outraged), 4, 51 Inequality, 3, 7, 9, 18, 19, 27, 29, 32, 33, 44, 52, 55, 70, 71, 84, 87, 89–93, 96, 102, 104, 106, 112–117, 121, 123, 133, 142, 145, 150, 171 Injury(ies), 9, 72, 74–77, 102, 111, 115, 116, 124 Injustice, 3, 7, 19, 89, 112 International Financial Institutions (IFIs), 8, 18, 31, 34, 35, 43–45, 47, 48, 72, 97, 105 182 INDEX International Monetary Fund(IMF), 8, 9, 14, 18, 31, 34, 37, 44, 47, 48, 60, 62, 66, 70, 72, 78, 94, 102, 105, 113, 115, 123, 162, 166 Internet, 6, 8, 14, 26, 40, 49, 58, 69, 75, 88, 107, 114, 115, 123–125, 137, 153, 166, 171 Lower middle income countries, 15, 68 Low income countries, 14, 20, 24, 68, 90, 91, 112, 117 Low living standards, 7, 18, 27, 29, 33, 60, 77, 105, 113, 121, 144, 152. See also Poverty/poor J Jobs, 1, 7, 18, 19, 27, 29, 31, 47, 52, 54, 60, 77, 78, 84–86, 97, 100, 102, 103, 105, 113, 114, 116, 117, 121, 127, 132, 141, 165, 169, 170 Justice, 1, 6, 7, 18–20, 24, 25, 35, 37, 47, 55, 61, 62, 70, 71, 77, 85, 104, 112, 113, 119, 121, 131, 135, 141, 143, 146–148, 151, 153, 158, 161, 168, 171 L Labor rights, 8, 18, 36, 38, 42, 106, 113, 122, 139, 170 Latin America, 4, 14, 16, 21, 22, 28, 29, 37, 38, 41, 45, 47, 48, 51, 67, 68, 97, 99, 100, 112 Latin America Spring, 9, 99 Laws, 24, 33, 47, 53, 54, 59, 63, 68, 69, 72, 75–77, 86, 98, 115, 124, 128, 130, 132, 133, 135, 138, 147, 148, 150, 151, 154, 157, 159–164, 166, 167, 170, 171 Lawsuit, 62, 75, 114, 115, 123, 124, 129 Leaks, 8, 26, 61, 71, 123, 125, 129 Legal/paralegal, 4, 7, 9, 18, 24, 25, 62, 88, 99, 112, 123 Lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgendered people(LGBT), 8, 18, 36–38, 42, 60, 99, 106, 113, 122, 139, 164, 171 Local government, 65 Looting, 8, 60, 71–73, 114, 123, 168 M Marches, 8, 25, 49, 58, 59, 114, 123, 125, 126, 139, 151, 152 Mayday, 153, 155, 158, 160, 163, 167, 170 Merchant strike, 123 MeToo, 41, 54, 62, 71, 99, 117, 160, 162, 163 Middle class, 3, 4, 19, 21, 32, 51, 52, 59, 84, 88, 90, 112–114, 116 Middle East and North Africa (MENA), 14, 15, 24, 51, 67, 68, 97, 100 Migrants, 8, 42, 52, 53, 87, 114, 142, 160 Military, 9, 26, 50, 60, 65, 67, 70, 71, 79, 87, 105, 106, 115, 122, 123, 128, 129, 131, 132, 139, 151, 154, 155, 159, 160, 162, 163, 169, 172 Military-industrial complex, 7, 18, 22, 26, 106, 113, 121 Missing people, 75, 115, 124 Monsanto, 55, 67, 149, 150 Mutual aid, 123 N Neoliberal, 3, 19, 90, 112 Noisemaking/ caceroladas, 8, 61, 123, 125 Non governmental organization (NGO), 8, 49, 50, 113, 122, 133, 134, 138 INDEX 183 North America, 14–16, 21, 22, 24, 28, 29, 37, 38, 42, 45, 47, 50, 68 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 48, 133, 137, 140 O Occupations, 8, 49, 52, 58, 59, 66, 114, 123, 125, 138, 141 Occupy, 4, 32, 40, 44, 59, 62, 65, 66, 71, 84, 87, 112, 123, 139, 141, 144, 145 Oligarchy, 7, 18, 22, 26, 85, 86, 106, 113, 121 Omnibus protests, 3, 6, 19, 112, 165 P Pandemic, 3, 19, 20, 27, 31, 33, 40, 42, 86, 88, 90, 99, 112, 169, 170, 172, 173 Patriotic, 7, 18, 19, 25, 85, 86, 105, 112, 121 Patriotic Europeans Against the Islamization of the Occident (PEGIDA), 84, 87, 116, 153 Pension(s), 8, 18, 27, 29, 33–35, 47, 52–54, 56, 60, 66, 69, 78, 100, 107, 113, 114, 121, 139, 142, 144, 149, 157–159, 166 People’s Tribunal, 62 Personal freedoms, 3, 8, 18, 19, 36, 38, 42, 43, 85, 86, 113, 116, 122, 156, 170 Petition(s), 123–125, 134, 135, 144 Police, 24, 26, 33, 50, 52, 60–63, 65, 71, 73–75, 77, 89, 115, 122–124, 129, 139, 140, 143, 145, 154–158, 161, 168, 169, 171 Political movement, 2, 84 Political party(ies), 8, 49–51, 65, 84, 113, 115, 122, 123 Political representation, 3, 7, 18, 20–23, 68, 100, 112, 121 Political stunt, 123 Political system, 3, 7, 15, 18, 20–23, 51, 68, 84, 116, 152, 155 Populism, 7, 9, 42, 83–85, 87, 89, 116, 161 Poverty/poor, 19, 43, 53, 55, 88, 90, 100, 105, 139, 146, 150, 151. See also Low living standards Prayer, 123, 125 Prisoners, 8, 18, 36, 38, 43, 50, 62, 71, 77, 107, 113, 122, 127, 132, 143, 144, 147 Privatization, 7, 18, 29, 31, 32, 35, 53, 60, 66, 77, 100, 103, 105, 113, 121, 135, 138, 140, 148–150, 163 Protests assemblies, 8, 58, 59, 114, 123 Public services, 1, 7, 18, 19, 24, 25, 27–29, 31, 52, 55, 56, 69, 78, 100, 102, 103, 113, 114, 117, 120, 121, 132, 139 Q QAnon, 52, 86, 114, 116, 162, 170 R Racial justice, 36–38, 52, 104, 114, 122, 155 Radical Feminist Group(FEMEN), 41, 99, 125, 136 Radical right/far right, 7–9, 19, 26, 27, 36, 40, 42, 52, 60, 73, 85, 88, 89, 102, 111, 113, 114, 116 Real democracy, 1, 3, 7, 18, 21, 22, 52, 85–87, 94, 96, 97, 103, 112, 121, 144 Rebellion, 3, 47, 77, 89, 165, 173 Reforms, 3, 7, 8, 18, 19, 25, 27–29, 31, 33–35, 47, 48, 52–56, 65, 66, 184 INDEX 69, 77, 78, 87, 100, 103, 107, 112, 113, 120, 121, 131, 133, 139, 141–144, 146, 148–152, 154, 156, 158, 159, 162, 166 Refugees, 25, 40, 52, 53, 87, 88, 114, 136, 150, 153, 157, 158 Religious procession, 123, 126 Religious rights, 38, 43, 86, 107, 122 Repression, 4, 6, 9, 57, 72, 74–76, 102, 111, 115, 116, 121, 124, 141–143, 159 Revolution, 63, 78, 84, 86, 87, 165–167, 171, 172 Right to the commons, 8, 18, 19, 36, 38, 40, 105, 113, 122 Riot(s), 2, 34, 36, 60, 66, 72–74, 77, 102, 112, 114, 135–137, 140, 141, 145, 147, 153, 157, 160 S Self-inflicted violence, 9, 62, 71, 114, 123 Sexual rights, 36–38, 42, 99, 106, 113, 122 Socialism, 7, 18 Social movements, 50, 59, 61, 86, 98, 122 Social policy(ies), 62 Social protection, 19, 33, 100, 102, 103, 105, 113, 117 Social security, 34, 37, 103 Social Upraising/ Estallido Social, 4, 51, 56, 64, 78, 166 South Asia, 14–16, 22, 26, 29, 38, 45, 68 Sovereignty, 7, 18, 22, 25, 85, 105, 112, 121, 130, 166 Statements, 123, 124 Street theater/music, 8, 61, 71, 123 Strike, 2, 8, 47, 49, 52–54, 56, 59, 60, 63, 71, 72, 99, 114, 123, 126–128, 131–146, 148–151, 155–158, 162–164, 167, 168, 170 Student(s), 8, 50, 54, 60, 69, 73, 77, 113, 122, 126, 133, 134, 137, 139–142, 144–148, 151–153, 155, 156, 158, 159, 163, 167 Sub-Saharan Africa, 14, 16, 22, 24, 28, 29, 38, 45, 51, 68 Sustainable development, 43, 105 T Tax, 7, 9, 18, 19, 24, 25, 27, 29, 32, 68, 71, 72, 90, 92, 104, 113, 121, 132, 135, 136, 140, 141, 146, 152, 154, 158–162, 164 Teargas, 75, 115, 124 The 1%, 87, 96 The 99%, 27, 32, 71, 87 Torture, 75, 115, 124 Trade agreement/partnership, 49, 63, 148 Trade union, 4, 50–52, 59, 60, 72, 113, 120, 122, 149, 165, 166. See also Unions Transparency and accountability, 7, 18, 22, 25, 105, 112, 121 Twitter, 61, 71 U Unions, 8, 49, 56, 120, 127, 132, 135, 141, 148, 154, 167. See also Trade union United Nations(UN), 3, 4, 10, 47, 49, 72, 89, 102, 108, 112, 117, 134, 140, 166 United States, 4, 9, 18, 21, 24–27, 31–33, 35, 37, 40–42, 47, 48, 52–56, 60, 61, 64–68, 71, 73, 76, 84, 86–89, 113–116, 120, 123, 132, 134, 135, 137, 139, 141, 145, 146, 148, INDEX 185 152, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 163, 165, 167, 170, 173 Unorganized workers, 8, 50 Upper middle income countries, 15, 20, 68, 96 Uprising, 64, 84, 112 V Vandalism, 8, 60, 71–73, 114, 123 Violence, 9, 24, 41, 43, 54, 60, 62, 63, 71–75, 77, 78, 88, 89, 112, 114–116, 123, 124, 129, 145–148, 150, 154, 157, 158, 160, 163, 164, 166, 168, 171, 172 W Wages, 7, 18, 29, 31, 33, 47, 52–54, 59, 64, 66, 68, 69, 86, 88, 97, 99, 103, 105, 113–115, 121, 132, 134–139, 141, 142, 145, 148–150, 153, 163, 165, 167, 169, 172 Walkout, 8, 59, 123, 126, 127 War, 7, 18, 26, 40, 53, 61, 72, 84, 86, 92, 105, 106, 131, 143, 144, 151, 154, 159, 161, 171 Whistleblowing(ers), 8, 26, 61, 71, 114, 123, 127, 129, 168 Wikileaks, 26, 61, 68 Woman(en), 7, 8, 18, 38, 40, 41, 50, 52, 56, 59, 61, 62, 69, 71, 97, 98, 102, 106, 111, 113, 114, 117, 122, 132, 133, 138, 143–145, 147, 153, 156, 157, 159, 160, 168, 170–172 Women’s rights, 3, 9, 19, 36, 37, 40, 41, 53, 54, 71, 97–99, 117 Workers, 8, 26, 49, 52–56, 59, 86, 99, 106, 114, 116, 126–128, 131–143, 145–150, 155, 156, 160, 163, 165, 167, 169–172 Work(ing) conditions, 27, 31, 59, 60, 64, 142, 149, 156, 163, 165, 172 World Bank, 8, 9, 14, 18, 32, 44, 47, 48, 66, 105, 113, 115, 123, 133 World Social Forum(WSF), 41, 44, 47, 49, 134, 137, 143, 150, 155, 158, 163 Y Yellow vests, 4, 51, 60, 64, 77, 87, 112, 116, 162, 163, 167, 170 Youth, 8, 47, 50, 54, 61, 99, 113, 122, 141, 146, 163