Feminism and the Women's Movement in the Philippines: Struggles, Advances, and Challenges Historical roots and evolution of the feminist movement The dynamic women's movement in the Philippines is the product of a long history of struggle and participation in various historical conjunctures. As a nation rigged by a difficult colonial past, it is important to locate the role of women in the quest for independence. As a society embezzled by unequal power relations between the masses and the ruling class, it is crucial to place the women's movement in the struggle for democracy, equality, and social justice. As part and parcel of the whole array of social movements in the Philippines, the women's movement developed and responded to the needs of the time. The changes in the nature of the women's movement from one historical period to another were apt responses to the social conditions and to the status of their struggle at different points in the past. Thus, in understanding the present characteristics of the movement, we need first to illustrate the position of women in the history of the country, and their role in shaping the history of their movement in particular, and the nation in general. The Bayan and the Babaylan: Women in Pre-Colonial Philippines In the pre-colonial Philippine society, the babaylan was the major representation of the status accorded to women in a balangay or barangay . 1 The babaylan was mostly concerned with culture, religion, medicine and other theoretical knowledge crucial to the conduct of pre-colonial Philippine society. Salazar(1994) called the babaylan the'proto-scientist' among the ancient Filipinos. Although the role was often given to women, Salazar noted that there were also biological males who performed the role of babaylan albeit most of them were effeminate or blatantly homosexual. The babaylan was not subservient to the datu , who was considered the wealthiest, the strongest, the wisest, and often the bravest, member of the clan – which made him the rightful head. Instead, the datu and the babaylan worked together on important social activities. Being the spiritual leader, the babaylan was in charge of rituals, including those of agricultural significance. Through her knowledge in astronomy, she determined the right time to clear the land, as well as the planting and harvest cycle. She also studied and took charge of medicine, developing her knowledge and passing this on. Thus, the babaylan was not just a priestess or a cultural figure, but also a community doctor or healer(Salazar, 1994: 213­216). The persona of the babaylan embodied the traditional role of women in pre-colonial Philippine society: They performed vital functions, and were recognized for their social and cultural leadership. Chains of Chastity: The Colonization of Women's Body in Hispanic Philippines With the arrival of the Spaniards, the status of the babaylan was drastically transformed, as they and their philosophy were seen as anathema to the colonizers' religious beliefs and therefore had to be eradicated for the sake of the Christian faith(Gaborro, 2009). The Spanish friars demonized them and claimed that the babaylan were endowed with powers from the black magic. Alongside aggressive Christian indoctrination, the friars did not just police the religious and spiritual belief of women, but also took control of their bodies and libido: their sexuality was suppressed and controlled through practices like the confession. The friars took the liberty to widen the scope of the Christian doctrine on prohibitions of adultery and labeled other sexual activities as sinful, unclean and thus must be confessed to a priest. These included masturbation, homosexuality, sexual touching ('foreplay' in colloquial terms), among others(Gealogo, 2010: 69-70). Gealogo(2010: 80) concluded that the issue of sexuality in the colonial context can very well be assessed as an issue of creating perception and consciousness on sex and women's body. The Catholic Church, in hoisting itself as the only source of morality for its subjects, transcended the public sphere and penetrated even the most private and individual aspect of the locals' lives. In such endeavor, the woman's body was one of the most vulnerable targets, especially in the context of feudal and patriarchal Spanish Catholic Church. Sisters in Arms: Revolutionaries, suffragists and guerillas Women's participation in affairs dominated by men can be traced back to the Philippine Revolution against Spain (1896-1898) and the Filipino-American War in the years 1 A settlement organized around the principle of kinship 1