Mapping Labour Unions in Pakistan Conclusion In terms of their history, labour laws and trade unionism in Pakistan has been shaped by the British era legislations, politics and independence movement. However, the marked difference between the political leanings of the Indian National Congress- deeply connected with workers movement- and Pakistan Muslim League’s- that did not pursue a concerted engagement with workers struggle- played a critical role in the future of trade unions in the newly independent states. Post-independence, the political leadership in India promoted powerful trade unions, however, the political and later military governments in Pakistan followed a non-democratic path, adopting a private-led capitalist model while sidelining the welfare agenda. This was not helped by the fact that, Pakistan inherited a very small industrial base and limited industrial labour that could lay the foundation of a powerful industrial trade union movement. Subsequent governments in Pakistan adopted legislative, institutional and arbitrary measures that promoted weaker, politically fragmented and plant­based unions. Pakistan’s industrial relations laws too were moulded to adhere to the state’s exclusionary and intervention-led regulatory order, with successive amendments leading to exclusion of groups that constitute about 70% of the total labour force of the country. The status of the right to organise in Pakistan has repeatedly come under criticism both by ILO’s Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations(CEACR) and the review reports of GSP+ that have noted persistent obstacles in the way of unionization. Labour unions outline a number of concerns with regard to trade unions today, most pressing being declining strength and capacities of unions, growing informality, the government’s lack of political will to advance labour rights and a shrinking democratic space. Internally, labour unions point to deep-seated divides and corruption within their ranks that are pulling unions away from their agenda of serving on workers’ rights. Studying trade unions’ internal mechanisms, it seems that national laws provide provision to unions to establish basic infrastructure, raise funds and maintain financial accountability towards their constituents. Unions 65