STUDY DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS COMPARING EUROPEAN SOCIAL DEMOCRACY Differences and Similarities between 14 Social Democratic Parties European social democracy has gone through a number of profound transformations since the second half of the 20th century in terms of elec­toral fortune, ideological ori­entation, and electoral appeal. In spite of competing in differ­ent political contexts and re­sponding to a variety of ideo­logical challenges, social demo­­cratic parties share a homoge­neous ideological orientation, at least when their aggregate positions are considered. Al­though relevant differences emerge if we look at party stances on individual issues, there is largely an ideological overlap when it comes to the parties’ aggregate positions. André Krouwel and Yordan Kutiyski March 2022 The aim of this project is to portray the differences between 14 European social democratic parties by using expert coding on a number of relevant policy issues.