the vote. 303 Its national breakthrough came in April 2019, securing over 10% of votes and 24 parliamentary seats. The momentum continued in the November snap election, with VOX achieving more than 15% of the vote and increasing its seats to 52, marking its establishment as a significant force in Spanish politics. The ascendance of the far-right VOX is linked to Catalonia’s contentious and unsanctioned separatist referendum. This development marked a pivotal moment, exacerbating the centre-periphery cleavage in Spain. Historically a nation with diverse regional identities, the rise of VOX has intensified the politicisation of national unity. The catalyst for this sharpened focus was the controversial“ Procès”, the series of events leading to and including the unauthorised 2017 independence referendum in Catalonia. Internationally, VOX portrayed immigration, especially from non-European sources—mainly Islamic, as a siege on Spanish cultural and national identity echoing a common theme in the discourse of xenophobic parties who leverage societal fears to gain traction for their exclusionary agendas. 304 Domestically, the party framed the electoral gains of pro-separatist parties and their secessionist endeavours as an assault on Spain’s territorial integrity. To understand the increasing support for VOX, it is essential to consider whether this reflects a broader conservative shift among the Spanish electorate, potentially signalling a cultural backlash. This question bears significance, as it could indicate growing sympathies for political forces advocating for traditional values. To address this inquiry, it is pertinent to present empirical evidence of societal attitudes towards issues typically associated with progressive and conservative values. Figure 49. Levels of high and low acceptance of homosexuality and abortion over time(1989-2022). Homosexuality Acceptance- High Homosexuality Acceptance- Low Abortion Acceptance- High 60 Abortion Acceptance- Low VOX Emergence(2018) 50 40 30 Percentage of Acceptance 1989-1993 1994-1998 1999-2004 2005-2009 Time Period Source: Own elaboration from World Values Survey(WVS) data. 2010-2014 2017-2022 128 The transformation of the mainstream right and its impact on(social) democracy