FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG – A majority working in the shadows FOREWORD The transition from the informal to the formal economy is of strategic significance for hundreds of millions of workers and economic units around the world, which are working and producing in precarious and vulnerable conditions and are often facing poverty, insecurity and acute decent-work deficits. Policy makers, academics, workers’ and employers’ organizations now acknowledge that the high incidence of informality in all its aspects is a major challenge for sustain­able development. From this perspective, the development of knowledge on the nature and characteristics of informal employment is essential to support national dialogue pro­cesses and action. Informality exists in all countries regardless of the level of socio-economic development, although it is more prevalent in developing countries. In most African countries, more than 80 per cent and up to 95 per cent of the working population make a living labouring in the informal economy. Informality reaches beyond the labour market and permeates many areas of an individual’s life. It shapes how people live and interact with the state and how they access public services. It governs people’s approach to solidarity when they do not benefit from social protection schemes that are mostly con­fined to the formal economy. In Africa, the Covid-19 pan­demic affected societies where a majority of the population could not receive social support during lockdown periods and reduced economic activities. It worsened the conditions of many living in informality. When staff of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) visited me in 2017 and proposed a joint research project on the nexus be­tween informality and social protection, I immediately agreed as this is at the heart of decent-work challenges in the region. We quickly set up a team consisting of experts from FES, the German Institute of Development and Sustainability(IDOS) and the International Labour Organization(ILO). The team was joined by colleagues from AfroBarometer to support the design and elaboration of a questionnaire to assess the need for, and coverage, or lack of it, of social health protection among informal economy workers. The survey questionnaire also tackled existing coping strategies, perceptions, trust in institutions, and forms of organizations in the informal economy. Faster than what is usually observed in such inter-institutional arrangements, the questionnaire went for testing and the first survey was con­ducted in October 2018 in Kenya. Particular attention was paid to capture authentic views and to include those who often go uncovered by conducting face-to-face interviews in vernacular languages. By the end of 2020, five more coun­tries followed suit(Benin, Ethiopia, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal and Zambia). The surveys conducted combined a standard survey on the informal economy with an opinion poll, i.e., hard facts plus views, perceptions and opinions on social security and the representation of interests in the informal economy. The same research protocol was used in all surveys, hence it was possible to make cross-country comparisons of findings, and to show country specificities, as well as structural fea­tures across the continent. When the pandemic reached the countries pre-selected for surveys, some delays in conducting interviews were unavoidable. Yet, whenever circumstances allowed, surveys were continued, using all necessary pre­cautionary measures. Understandably, some parts of the questionnaire were amended to keep the technical protocol in place while allowing some additional aspects linked to the pandemic to be added. The report presents the outcome of close collaboration be­tween the FES as the lead agency, the IDOS and the ILO. It benefitted greatly from AfroBarometer, following their research protocol in designing the survey sample and the selection of households. Its findings are of immense value to both researchers and policy makers, and it is hoped that it will be widely consulted. I sincerely congratulate the team which worked together so meticulously and managed to overcome many impediments inherent in such a project. I also express my gratitude to many others who, in one way or another, helped to make this unique project a success. I look forward to continued collaboration among our organizations. Cynthia Samuel-Olonjuwon ILO Assistant Director General and Regional Director for Africa 2