FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG – A majority working in the shadows Figure 5.4 Increase in income poverty by regions as a result of Covid-19 60% 40% 20% 15.2% 21.0% 15.8% 24.5% 26.3% 16.5% 0% Côte d’Ivoire Ethiopia Capital city Other urban areas Rural areas these»new poor« differ from households that were already income-poor before the pandemic? Differences between the two groups could point, for example, to an urbanization and feminization of income poverty due to the pandemic. Tables 5.A1 and 5.A2 in the Appendix show the means of various household characteristics for those that have fallen into income poverty and those that were already income-poor before the pandemic. We start by describing the general characteristics of the new income-poor households of both countries. As we have information on informal employment status from all household members of the new income-poor households, we can see that most of the members of the lat­ter are working as own-account workers and are on average between 10 and 29 years of age. Household heads of the new income-poor households are mainly female and have completed primary education. Beside these general characteristics of the new income-poor households, it is important to understand whether the pan­demic has pushed specific types of household into poverty, ones that differ from the profile of the already poor. As we have detailed information on the household head, but also on all other members of the new income-poor and pre-ex­isting poor households, we can investigate the differences between them. Figure 5.5 presents the differences between the two groups. The detailed differences in means can be found in column 3 of Tables 5.A1 and 5.A2. A positive differ­ence between the two groups indicates that the mean of the indicator is larger for the new income-poor households than for households already income-poor before the pandemic. A negative difference indicates the opposite. while the old income-poor have a larger share of uneducated household heads. The share of female-headed households seems to be slightly larger among the new households. Overall, the findings indicate that the profile of the new income-poor is more urban and better educated, relative to the already poor, who are more rural, less educated and pre­dominately reliant on agriculture. More household members of the new income-poor work as informal employees in the manufacturing or service sectors. The second panel of Figure 5.5 gives the differences in means for Côte d’Ivoire. Several differences between new and old income-poor can be detected here, too. Households of the new poor have a higher share of employers and are on aver­age younger and living in urban areas. Similar to Ethiopia, the share of household heads who work in the manufacturing and service sectors is larger among the new income-poor. Additionally, more household heads work in the trade/retail sector. Interestingly, differences between the two groups can be detected with regard to education. A higher share of household heads of the new poor have secondary or univer­sity qualifications, which indicates that more better educated households have fallen into income poverty because of the pandemic. Overall, the findings for Côte d’Ivoire indicate that the profile of the new poor is younger, better educated and more urban. More household heads work in the trade/retail or service sector. In contrast to Ethiopia the households of the new poor have a higher share of employers, while no differences in the share of own-account workers or informal employees can be detected between the two groups. 5.4 GOVERNMENT RESPONSES The first panel of Figure 5.5 gives the differences in means for Ethiopia. The new income-poor differ in several charac­teristics from households already income-poor before the pandemic. The households of the new poor have higher shares of informal employees and more of them live in urban areas. Furthermore, the share of household heads who work in the non-agricultural, manufacturing and service sectors is larger than among the old income-poor. Interestingly, a higher share of household heads with primary and second­ary education can be found among the new income-poor, Both governments have responded to the Covid-19 pan­demic by implementing lockdown measures and supporting their health care systems. Considering the large negative economic impacts, it is necessary to explore whether the governments have also responded by supporting households working in the informal economy. Survey respondents were asked whether their households had received any assistance from the government in terms of food, cash or other support since the outbreak of the Covid-19 crisis. Figure 5.6 depicts the shares of households that received assistance from the 44