2. Supporting a Fragile Peace After 25 years of uninterrupted operations in the DRC, the United Nations Organisation Stabilisation Mission in the DRC(MONUSCO) is a long running peacekeeping mission. It is also one of the largest missions, both in terms of the number of civilians and military personnel deployed and the size of its budget – more than US$1 billion per year, nearly triple that of the Congolese army before the resurgence of the M23 in 2021. It also is one of the most controversial missions. MONUSCO has been criticised in recent years by the Congolese government, as well as by a fringe of civil society and leaders in the Great Lakes region. Created in July 1999 as the United Nations Organisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo(MONUC), the mission initially was tasked with observing the implementation of the Lusaka ceasefire. MONUC’s mandate was later extended to cover all subsequent peace processes, notably the comprehensive agreement signed in Pretoria in December 2002 that ended the Second Congo War. MONUC contributed positively to the post-conflict institution-building process in the Congo. It played a significant role in the quasi-reunification of the country and in the conduct of the three-year transition from 2003 to 2006. During this period, a new Constitution was adopted and promulgated, the first pluralistic and largely democratic elections were held in 2006, a national army and police force were established, and an initial disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration process was implemented. These advances brought peace to much of the country, but failed to secure the east where more than a hundred armed groups continue to operate. The use of political violence continues as common practice among the Congolese elite, while the state is unable to guarantee the security of the Congolese people from domestic rebellion or external aggression. As the transitional government took office, MONUC was unable to prevent the massacres committed near its positions(Kisangani 2002, Walungu 2003 and Ituri 2002­2004), which severely undermined the mission’s legitimacy. In May 2004, a mutiny led by Colonel Mutebusi, supported by Laurent Nkunda, broke out in Bukavu. In the weeks that followed, serious crimes were committed by both the official army and the mutineers, according to a report by Human Rights Watch(HRW). These crimes included summary executions of members of the Banyamulenge community by the Congolese army, as well as sexual violence, looting and murders of civilians by elements loyal to Laurent Nkunda (HRW, June 2004). Although MONUC occasionally intervened, it generally proved powerless to stop the violence against civilians. In its report, HRW recommended that MONUC urgently reconsider the rules of engagement of MONUC in the DRC to ensure a broader interpretation of its mandate under Chapter VII, which consists of protecting civilians and contributing to improving security conditions. Despite its recommendations, the mutiny expanded into a new rebellion(the CNDP) and the conflict displaced more than two million people and led to further massacres. 150 people were killed in November 2008 by CNDP militiamen and Mai Mai reprisals in Kanyabayonga and Kiwanja. These massacres occurred despite the presence of a MONUC base in Kiwanja. MONUC did intervene to facilitate the withdrawal of the rebels in Rumangabo and to find a peaceful solution to the conflict. Despite this success, popular criticism raged against the Mission, which was described as incompetent tourists or as profiteers. The slogan«No Nkunda, No Job» often directed at the mission encapsulated the latter view’s popularity. Demonstrations against MONUC were organised in Goma. Beyond MONUC’s internal weaknesses(logistical difficulties, contradictory orders, etc.), its inability to protect civilians was also driven its by political marginalization, reflected in tense relations with the Congolese army and the local administration in Rutshuru. In several cases, MONUC contingents were attacked by elements of the FARDC. In its report on violations committed by the FARDC in Goma and Kanyabanyonga in 2008, the United Nations Joint Human Rights Office(UNJHRO) noted that FARDC soldiers on the run attacked a MONUC patrol with stones and gunfire on the road to Rwindi. Furthermore, the involvement of FARDC units in human rights violations as well as their alliance with local militias both made cooperation with MONUC in protecting civilians difficult. This contributed to exacerbating tensions between 8 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e.V.